Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T13:12:26.750Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Ammonia and poultry welfare: a review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2007

H.H. Kristensen  and
C.M. Wathes
H.H. Kristensen*
Affiliation:
Institute of Ecology and Resource Management, University of Edinburgh, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, and Bio-Engineering Division, Silsoe Research Institute, Wrest Park, Silsoe, Bedford MK45 4HS, UK
C.M. Wathes
Affiliation:
Bio-Engineering Division, Silsoe Research Institute, Wrest Park, Silsoe, Bedford MK45 4HS, UK
*
†Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints: Department of Animal Science and Animal Health, Division of Ethology and Health, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Grmne-gårdsvej 8, DK-1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark. E-mail: HHK@email.dk
Get access

Abstract

Atmospheric ammonia is a major aerial pollutant of poultry buildings. The current exposure limits for ammonia of 25ppm are set on the basis of human safety rather than animal welfare. This paper reviews the evidence for ammonia exposure affecting various aspects of poultry welfare. The reviewed evidence suggests that ammonia exposure (1) causes irritation to the mucous membranes in the eyes and the respiratory system; (2) can increase the susceptibility to respiratory diseases; and (3) may affect food intake, food conversion efficiency and growth rate. The behavioural effects of ammonia on poultry have recently been investigated and suggest that there may be a threshold for ammonia detection or aversion at or below the current exposure limit. The available evidence for the effects of ammonia on poultry welfare should be considered when setting future guidelines for ammonia exposure in poultry houses.

Keywords

Ammoniapoultrywelfare
Type
Research Article
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 56 , Issue 3 , September 2000 , pp. 235 - 245
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allison, A.C. (1953) The morphology of the olfactory system in the vertebrates. Biological Reviews 28: 195CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Al-Mashhadani, E.H. and Beck, M.M. (1983) An SEM study of pulmonary ultrastructure in chickens subjected to various levels of atmospheric ammonia. Poultry Science 62: 1715–1716Google Scholar
Amer, A.H., Hillig, J. and Von Borell, E. (1998) Impact of ammonia stress on laying performance in caged laying hens. Proceedings of the 10th European Poultry Conference,Israel, Volume 2, pp. 590–594Google Scholar
Anderson, D.P., Beard, G.W. and Hanson, R.P. (1964) The adverse effects of ammonia on chickens including resistance to infection with Newcastle disease virus. Avian Diseases 8: 369–379Google Scholar
Anderson, D.P., Beard, C.W. and Hanson, R.P. (1966) Influence of poultry house dust, ammonia and carbon dioxide on the resistance of chickens to Newcastle disease virus. Avian Diseases 10: 177–188CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, D.P., Wolfe, R.R., Cherms, F.L. and Roper, W.E. (1968) Influence of dust and ammonia on the development of air sac lesions in turkeys. American Journal of Veterina ry Research 29: 1049–1058Google Scholar
Appleby, M.C. and Hughes, B.O. (1997) Animal Welfare. CAB International, Wallingford, UKGoogle Scholar
Bang, B.G. (1971) Functional anatomy of the olfactory system in 23 orders of birds. Acta Anatomica (Supplement) 58: 1–76Google Scholar
Blood, D.C. and Studdert, V.P. (1993) Bailliérés Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary. Bailliére Tindall, London, UKGoogle Scholar
Brambell, F.W.R. (1965) Report of the Technical Committee to Enquire into the Welfare of Animals Kept under Intensive Livestock Husbandry Systems. Her Majesty's Stationery Office: London, UKGoogle Scholar
Brewer, R.N. and Koon, J. (1973) Effects of various levels of ammonia on Marek's disease in young chickens. Avian Diseases 17: 851–854Google Scholar
Broom, D.M. (1988) The scientific assessment of animal welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 20: 5–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broom, D.M. and Johnson, K.G. (1993) Stress and Animal Welfare. Chapman and Hall, LondonCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burger, R.E. (1980) Respiratory gas exchange and control in the chicken. Poultry Science 59: 2654–2665Google Scholar
Burnett, W.E. (1969) Odor transport by particulate matter in high density poultry houses. Poultry Science 48: 182–185CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carpenter, G.A. (1986) Dust in livestock buildings -Review of some aspects. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 33: 227–241CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carpenter, G.A., Smith, W.K., Maclaren, A.P.C. and Spackman, D. (1986) Effects of internal air filtration on the performance of broilers and the aerial concentrations of dust and bacteria. British Poultry Science 27: 471–480CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charles, D.R. and Payne, C.G. (1966a) The influence of graded levels of atmospheric ammonia on chickens: 1. Effects on respiration and on the performance of broilers and replacement growing stock. British Poultry Science 7: 177–187CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charles, D.R. and Payne, C.G. (1966b) The influence of graded levels of atmospheric ammonia on chickens: 2. Effects on performance of laying hens. British Poultry Science 7: 189–198Google Scholar
Cohen, A.B. and Gold, W.M. (1975) Defence mechanisms of the lungs. Annual Review of Physiology 37: 325–350CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Concenção, M.A.P., Johnson, H.E. and Wathes, C.M. (1989) Air hygiene in a pullet house: Spatial homogeneity and aerial pollutants. British Poultry Science 30: 765–776CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coon, R.A., Jones, R.A., Jenkins, L.J. and Siegel, J. (1970) Animal inhalation studies on ammonia, ethylene, glucol, formaldehyde, dimethylamine and ethanol. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 16: 646–655CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coppinger, R.P. (1969) The effect of experience and novelty on avian feeding behaviour with reference to the evolution of warning coloration in butterflies. I. Reactions of wild-caught adult blue jays to novel insects. Behaviour 45: 45–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coppincer, R.P. (1970) The effect of experience and novelty on avian feeding behaviour with reference to the evolution of warning coloration in butterflies. II. Reaction of naive birds to novel insects. American Naturalist 104: 323–335CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curtis, S.E. (1972) Air environment and animal Performance. Journal of Animal Science 35: 628–634CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curtis, S.E. and Drummond, J.G. (1982) Air environment and animal performance. In: Handbook of Agricultural Productivity, volume 2, Animal Productivity (Rechcigl, M. Jr Ed.), CRC Press Inc, Florida, USAGoogle Scholar
Dennis, C. and Gee, J.M. (1973) The microbial flora of broiler house litter and dust. Journal of General Microbiology 78: 101–107CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drummond, J.G., Curtis, S.E., Simon, J. and Norton, H.W. (1980) Effects of aerial ammonia on growth and health of young pigs. Journal of Animal Science 50: 1085–1091Google Scholar
Duncan, I.J.H. and Fraser, D. (1997) Understanding animal welfare. In: Animal Welfare (Appleby, M.C. and Hughes, B.O., Eds), CAB International, Wallingford, UK pp. 19–33Google Scholar
Elwinger, K. and Svensson, L. (1996) Effect of dietary protein content, litter and drinker type on ammonia emissions from broiler houses. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 64: 197–208Google Scholar
Emeash, H.H., Ali, M.M. and El-Bably, M.A. (1998) Effects of some pollutants as stressors on some behavioural patterns and performance of broiler chickens. Poultry Abstracts 24: 58Google Scholar
FAWC (1992) FAWC updates the five freedoms. Veterinary Record 131: 357Google Scholar
Fedde, M.R. (1993) Respiration in birds. In: Duke's Physiology of Domestic Animals, 11th edn (Swenson, M.J. and Reece, W.O., Eds), Cornell University Press, New York, USA pp. 294–303Google Scholar
Feddes, J.J.R. and Licsko, Z.J. (1993) Air quality in commercial turkey housing. Canadian Agricultural Engineering 35: 147–150Google Scholar
Feddes, J.J.R., McQuitty, J.B. and Clark, P.C. (1985) Laying hen heat and moisture production under commercial conditions. Canadian Agricultural Engineering 27: 21–29Google Scholar
Frandson, R.D. and Spurgeon, T.L. (1992) Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals, 5th edn, Lea and Febiger Publishing, Philadelphia, USA p. 184Google Scholar
Gamsu, G., Weintraub, R.M. and Nadel, J.A. (1973) Clearance of tantalum from airways of different caliber in man evaluated by a roentgengraphic method. American Revim of Respiratory Diseases 107: 214–224Google Scholar
Groot Koerkamp, P.W.G. (1994) Review on emissions of ammonia from housing systems for laying hens in relation to sources, processes, building design and manure handling. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 59: 73–87Google Scholar
Groot Koerkamp, P.W.G., Keen, A., Vanniekerk, T.G.C.M. and Smit, S. (1995) The effects of manure and litter handling and indoor climate conditions on ammonia emissions from a battery cage and an aviary housing system for laying hens. Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science 43: 351–373CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groot Koerkamp, P.G.W., Metz, J.H.M., Phillips, V.R., Holden, M.R., Sneath, R.W., Short, J.L., White, R.P., Hartung, J., Seedorf, J., Schröder, M., Linkert, K.H., Pedersen, S., Takai, H., Johnsen, J.O. and Wathes, C.M. (1998) Concentrations and emissions of ammonia in livestock buildings in Northern Europe. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 70: 79–95Google Scholar
Guilford, T. (1986) How do “warning colours” work? Conspicuousness may reduce recognition errors in experimented predators. Animal Behaviour 34: 286–288CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guilford, T. (1990a) The secrets of aposematism – unlearned responses to specific colours and patterns. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 5: 323CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guilford, T. (1990b) Evolutionary pathways to aposematism. Acta Oecologica – International Journal of Ecology 11: 835–841Google Scholar
Harry, E.G. (1978) Air pollution in farm buildings and methods of control: a review. Avian Pathology 7: 441–454CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayter, R.B. and Besch, E.L. (1974) Airborne particle deposition in the respiratory tract of chickens. Poultry Science 53: 1507–1511CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hearn, P.J. and Gooderham, K.R. (1994) Ducks. In: The UFAW Handbook of the Management and Welfare of Farm Animal. 3rd edn. UFAW Publications, Potters Bar, UK pp. 243–253Google Scholar
Hughes, B.O. (1976) Behaviour as an index of welfare. In: Proceedings of the 5th European Poultry Conference, pp. 1005–1018Google Scholar
Janni, K.A. and Redig, P.T. (1986) Factors affecting the occurrence of aspergillosis in turkeys. American Society of Agricultural Engineering, Paper No 86–4533Google Scholar
Johnson, R.W., Curtis, S.E. and Shanks, R.D. (1991) Effects on chick performance of ammonia and heat stressors in various combination sequences. Poultry Science 70: 1132CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, J.B., Burgess, L.R., Webster, A.J.F. and Wathes, C.M. (1996) Behavioural responses of pigs to atmospheric ammonia in a chronic choice test. Animal Science 63: 437–445Google Scholar
Jones, R.B. and Gentle, M.J. (1985) Olfaction and behavioural modification in domestic chicks (Gallus domesticus). Physiology and Behavior 34: 917–924CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, R.B. and Roper, T.J. (1997) Olfaction in the domestic fowl a critical review. Physiology and Behavior 62: 1009–1018Google Scholar
Kare, M.R., Black, R. and Allison, E.G. (1956) The sense of taste in the fowl. Poultry Science 36: 129–138Google Scholar
Koon, J., Howes, J.R., Grub, W. and Rollo, C.A. (1963) Poultry dust: origin and composition. Agricultural Engineering 44: 608–609Google Scholar
Kristensen, H.H., Burgess, L.R., Demmers, T.G. and Wathes, C.M. (2000) The behavioural preferences of laying hens to atmospheric ammonia. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 68: 307–318CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krogh, A. (1941) The Comparative Physiology of Respiratory Mechanisms. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, USAGoogle Scholar
Lillie, R.J. (1970) Air Pollutants Affecting the Performance of Domestic Animals. Agricultural Handbook 380, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, Washington DC, USAGoogle Scholar
Madelin, T.M. and Wathes, C.M. (1989) Air hygiene in a broiler house: comparison of deep litter with raised netting floors. British Poultry Science 30: 23–37 and 157–171CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MAFF (1987a) Codes of Recommendations for the Welfare of Livestock: Domestic Fowls. MAFF Publications, London, UKGoogle Scholar
MAFF (1987b) Codes of Recommendations for the Welfare of Lizvstock: Turkeys. MAFF Publications, London, UKGoogle Scholar
Maghirang, R.G., Manbeck, H.B., Roush, W.B. and Muir, F.V. (1991) Air contaminant distributions in a commercial laying house. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineering 34: 2171–2180Google Scholar
Marples, N.M. and Roper, T.J. (1996) Effects of novel color and smell on the response of naive chicks towards food and water. Animal Behavionr 51: 1417–1424Google Scholar
Morrison, W.D., Pirie, P.D., Perkins, S., Braithwaite, L.A., Smith, J.H., Waterfall, D. and Doucett, C.M. (1993) Gases and respirable dust in confinement buildings and the response of animals to such airborne contaminants. Fourth International Symposium on Livestock Environment,American Society of Agricultural Engineering, pp. 734–742Google Scholar
Moulsley, L.J. (1977) A comparison between winter and summer concentrations of ammonia and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of two broiler houses. Sectional Note, SN/EN/23s/10003, National Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Silsoe, UKGoogle Scholar
Nixey, C. (1994) Turkeys. In: The UFAW Handbook of the Management and Welfare of Farm Animals, UFAW Publishing, Potters Bar, UK pp. 233–243Google Scholar
Noll, S.L., Janni, K.A., Halvorson, D.A. and Clanton, C.J. (1997) Market turkey performance, air quality and energy consumption affected by partial slotted flooring. Poultry Science 76: 271–279Google Scholar
O'Neill, D.H. and Phillips, V.R. (1992) A review of the control of odour nuisance from livestock buildings: Part 3, Properties of the odorous substances which have been identified in livestock waste on in the air around them. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 53: 23–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oyetunde, O.O.F., Thomson, R.G. and Carlson, H.C. (1978) Aerosol exposure of ammonia, dust and Escerichia coli in broiler chickens. Canadian Veterinary Journal 19: 187–193Google Scholar
Quarles, C.C.L. and Kling, H.F. (1974) Evaluation of ammonia and infectious bronchitis vaccination stress on broiler performance and carcass quality. Poultry Science 53: 1592–1596Google Scholar
Reece, F.N., Lott, B.D. and Deaton, J.W. (1980) Ammonia in the atmosphere during brooding affects performance of broiler chickens. Poultry Science 59: 486–488Google Scholar
Reece, F.N., Lott, B.D. and Deaton, J.W. (1981) Low concentrations of ammonia during brooding decrease broiler weight. Poultry Science 60: 937–940CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sainsbury, D. (1992) Poultry Health and Management – Chickens, Turkeys, Ducks, Geese, Quail, 3rd edn, Blackwell Scientific Ltd, Oxford, UKGoogle Scholar
Schiffman, S.S. and Nagle, H.T. (1992) Effects of environmental pollutants on taste and smell. Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery 106: 693–700CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sturkie, P.D. (1965) Avian Physiology. 2nd edn. Bailliere, Tindall and Cassell, London pp. 152–176 and pp. 406–441Google Scholar
Taiganides, E.P. and White, R.K. (1969) The menace of noxious gases in animal units. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineering 12: 359–362Google Scholar
Valentine, H. (1964) A study of the effects of different ventilation rates on the ammonia concentrations in the atmosphere of broiler houses. British Poultry Science 5: 149–159CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Visek, W.J. (1968) Some aspects of ammonia toxicity in animal cells. Journal ofDairy Science 51: 286Google Scholar
Wathes, C.M. (1998) Aerial emissions from poultry production. World's Poultry Science Journal 54: 1–11CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wathes, C.M., Jones, C.D.R. and Webster, A.J.F. (1983) Ventilation, air hygiene and animal health. Veterinary Record 113: 554–559Google Scholar
Wathes, C.M., Johnson, H.E. and Carpenter, G.A. (1991) Air hygiene in a pullet house: effects of air filtration on aerial pollutants measured in vivo and in vitro. British Poultry Science 32: 31–46Google Scholar
Wathes, C.M., Holden, M.R., Sneath, R.W., White, R.P. and Philips, V.R. (1997) Concentrations and emission rates of aerial ammonia, nitrous oxide, methane, carbon dioxide, dust and endotoxin in UK broiler and layer houses. British Poultry Science 38: 14–28Google Scholar
Weaver, W.D. and Meijerhof, R. (1991) The effects of different levels of the relative humidity and air movement on litter conditions, ammonia levels, growth and carcass quality for broiler chickens. Poultry Science 70: 746–755Google Scholar
Webster, A.J.F. (1994) Animal Welfare: A Cool Eye Towards Eden. Blackwell Scientific Ltd, Oxford, UKGoogle Scholar
Whyte, R.T. (1993) Aerial pollutants and the health of poultry farmers. World's Poultry Science Journal 49: 139–156Google Scholar
Williams, A.G. (1989) Dust and odour relationships in broiler house air. Journnl of Agricultural Research 44: 175–190Google Scholar
Wolfe, R.R., Anderson, D.P., Cherms, F.L. and Roper, W.E. (1968) Effect of dust and ammonia air contamination on turkey response. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineering 11: 515–518Google Scholar