Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-v9fdk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T14:15:43.245Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Dietary electrolyte balance: implications in heat stressed broilers

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 February 2007

T. AHMAD  and
M. SARWAR
T. AHMAD*
Affiliation:
Department of Animal Sciences, University of Arid Agriculture, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
M. SARWAR
Affiliation:
Institute of Animal Nutrition and Feed Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
*
*Corresponding author: tanvirah@yahoo.com
Get access

Abstract

Modern fast-growing meat-type broiler chickens are facing difficulties in coping with heat stress. The increase in broiler growth rate increases their body heat production. The global environmental temperature is also showing an upward trend. This situation demands an efficient means to economically improve the thermotolerance of broiler chickens in hot climates without affecting their productivity. Different managemental techniques and dietary modifications have been employed to overcome the adverse effects of heat stress. These strategies may often have proved beneficial but not all the time. Some of them even increased the cost of production. Many of these techniques did not show promising results, especially at higher ambient temperatures. This is probably due to not considering the loss of electrolytes during the periods of heat stress when panting birds are experiencing respiratory alkalosis. During heat stress, the loss of carbon dioxide (CO2) through respiration and bicarbonate ions coupled with monovalent cations (particularly sodium and potassium) through urine, disturbed the acid-base balance (respiratory alkalosis). The corrections in blood acid-base balance have been achieved by electrolyte supplementation, either through drinking water or feed. These electrolytes, in different amounts and proportions, proved beneficial for broilers under different heat stress regimens. The proportions of sodium, potassium and chloride in diets determine the dietary electrolyte balance (DEB=sodium plus potassium minus chloride, milliequivalents per kg). The discrepancies exist among different research workers about an appropriate DEB for heat-stressed broilers. Different environmental conditions in which broilers are reared; heat stress regimens (cyclic, acute, chronic), feeding regimens, source of electrolyte salts, combination of different electrolyte sources and the bird's genotype itself are factors that influence the requirements of a particular electrolyte as well as their balance in the diet. This review considers the usefulness and limitations of DEB equation, and the impact of different DEB on live performance, carcass characteristics, mortality and blood parameters in broilers reared under heat stress environments.

Keywords

dietary electrolyte balance (DEB)sodiumpotassiumchloridebroilerheat stress
Type
Review Article
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 62 , Issue 4 , December 2006 , pp. 638 - 653
Copyright
Copyright © World's Poultry Science Association 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

ADEKUNMISI, A.A. and ROBBINS, K.R. (1987) Effects of dietary crude protein, electrolyte balance, and photoperiod on growth of broiler chickens. Poultry Science 66: 299–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
AHMAD, T., MAHR-UN-NISA, MUSHTAQ T., MIRZA, M.A., HOOGE, D.M. and SARWAR, M. (2006) Effect of different non-chloride sodium sources on the performance of heat stressed broiler chickens. British Poultry Science 47: 1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
AHMAD, T., SARWAR, M., MAHR-UN-NISA, AHSAN-UL-HAQ and ZIA-UL-HASAN, (2005) Influence of varying sources of dietary electrolytes on the performance of broilers reared in a high temperature environment. Animal Feed Science and Technology 20: 277–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BAGHEL, R.P.S. and PRADHAN, K. (1989) Energy, protein and limiting amino acid requirements of broilers at very high ambient temperature. British Poultry Science 30: 295–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BEDANOVA, I., VOSLAROVA, E., VECEREK, V., STRAKOVA, E. and SUCHY, P. (2003) The haematological profile of broilers under acute and chronic heat stress at 30±1°C level. Folia Veterinaria 47: 188–192.Google Scholar
BEKER, A. and TEETER, R.G. (1994) Drinking water temperature and potassium chloride supplementation effects on broiler body temperature and performance during heat stress. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 3: 87–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BELAY, T. and TEETER, R.G. (1993) Broiler water balance and thermobalance during thermoneutral and high ambient temperature exposure. Poultry Science 72: 116–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BORGES, S.A. (1997) Suplementacao de cloreto de potassio e bicarbonato de sodio para frangos de corte durante o verao. Dissertacao de mestrado, UNESP, Jaboticabal, Brazil.Google Scholar
BORGES, S.A. (2001) Balanco eletrolitico e sua interrelacao com o equilibrio acidobase em frangos de corte submetidos a estresse calorico. Jaboticabal, Tese (Doutorado em Zootecnia)Curso de Posgraduacao em Zootecnia, Universidade Estadual Paulista. Pp. 97.Google Scholar
BORGES, S.A., ARIKI, J., SANTIN, E., FISCHER DA SILVA, A.V. and MAIOKRA, A. (1999) Balanco eletrolitico em dieta preinicial de frangos de corte durante o verao. Revista Brasileira de Ciencia Avicola 1: 175–179.Google Scholar
BORGES, S.A., FISCHER DA SILVA, A.V., ARIKI, J., HOOGE, D.M. and CUMMINGS, K.R. (2003a) Dietary electrolyte balance for broiler chickens under moderately high ambient temperatures and relative humidities. Poultry Science 82: 301–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BORGES, S.A., FISCHER DA SILVA, A.V., ARIKI, J., HOOGE, D.M. and CUMMINGS, K.R. (2003b) Dietary electrolyte balance for broiler chickens exposed to thermoneutral or heat-stress environments. Poultry Science 82: 428–435.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BORGES, S.A., FISCHER DA SILVA, A.V., MEIRA, A.D.A., MOURA, T., MAIORKA, A. and OSTRENSKY, A. (2004b) Electrolyte balance in broiler growing diets. International Journal of Poultry Science 3: 623–628.Google Scholar
BORGES, S.A., MAIORKA, A., LAURENTIZ, A.C., FISCHER DA SILVA, A.V., SANTIN, E. and ARIKI, J. (2002) Electrolytic balance in broiler chicks during the first week of age. Revista Brasileira de Ciência Avícola 4: 149–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BORGES, S.A., FISCHER DA SILVA, A.V., MAIORKA, A., HOOGE, D.M. and CUMMINGS, K.R. (2004a) Effects of diet and cyclic daily heat stress on electrolyte, nitrogen and water intake, excretion and retention by colostomized male broiler chickens. International Journal of Poultry Science 3: 313–321.Google Scholar
BORGES, S.A., FISCHER DA SILVA, A.V., MAJORKA, A., HOOGE, D.M. and CUMMINGS, K.R. (2004c) Physiological responses of broiler chickens to heat stress and dietary electrolyte balance (sodium plus potassium minus chloride, milliequivalent per kilogram). Poultry Science 83: 1551–1558.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BRAKE, J., BALNAVE, D. and DIBNER, J.J. (1998) Optimum dietary arginine:lysine ratio for broiler chickens is altered during heat stress in association with changes in intestinal uptake and dietary sodium chloride. British Journal of Poultry Science 39: 639–647.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BRANTON, S.I., REECE, F.N. and DEATON, J.W. (1986) Use of ammonium chloride and sodium bicarbonate in acute heat exposure of broilers. Poultry Science 65: 1659–1663.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CALDER, W.A. and SCHMIDT-NEILSEN, K. (1967) Temperature regulation and evaporation in the pigeon and road runner. American Journal of Physiology 213: 883–889.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CARRE, B., GOMEZ, J., MELCION, J.P. and GIBOULOT, B. (1994) La viscosite des aliments destines a I'aviculture. Utilisation pour predire la consommation et I'excretion d'eau. INRA Production Animale 7: 369–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
COHEN, I. and HURWITZ, S. (1974) The response of blood ionic constituents and acid-base balance to dietary sodium, potassium and chloride in laying fowl. Poultry Science 53: 378–383.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DALE, N.M. and FULLER, H.L. (1980) Effect of diet composition on feed intake and growth of chicks under heat stress. II. Constant vs. cycling temperatures. Poultry Science 59: 1434–1441.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DAMRON, B.L., JOHNSON, W.L. and KELLY, L.S. (1986) Utilization of sodium from sodium bicarbonate by broilers chickens. Poultry Science 65: 782–785.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DAMRON, B.L. and HARMS, R.H. (1981) Broiler performance as affected by sodium source, level and monensin. Nutrition Reports International 24: 731–740.Google Scholar
DARRE, M.J., ODOM, T.W., HARRISON, P.C. and STATEN, F.E. (1980) Time course of changes in respiratory rate, blood pH and blood pCO2 of SCWLH hens. Poultry Science 59: 15–98.Google Scholar
DONALD, J. (2000) Getting the most from evaporative cooling systems in tunnel ventilated broiler houses. World Poultry 16: 34–39.Google Scholar
EDWARDS, H.M. JR. (1984) Studies on the etiology of tibial dyschondroplasia in chickens. Journal of Nutrition 114: 1001–1013.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
EL HADI, H. and SYKES, A.H. (1982) Thermal panting and respiratory alkalosis in the laying hen. British Poultry Science 23: 49–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
FISCHER DA SILVA, A.V., FLEMMING, J.S. and FRANCO, S.G. (1994) Utilizacao de diferentes sais na prevencao do estresse calorico de frangos de corte criados em clima quente. Revista Setor de Ciencias Agrarias 13: 287–292.Google Scholar
FIXTER, M., BALNAVE, D. and JOHNSON, R.J. (1987) The influence of dietary electrolyte balance broiler growth at high temperatures. In: Proc. Foundation Symposium, Univ. of Sydney, Australia. Pp. 34–48.Google Scholar
FLEET, J.C. and SAYLOR, W.W. (1983) Interaction of dietary electrolytes and coccidiostats in broilers chickens. Poultry Science 62: 1422–1423.Google Scholar
FLEMMING, J.S., ARRUDA, J.S., SOUZA, G.A., FEDALTA, L.M., FRANCE, S.G., FLEMING, R., ALMEIDA, R. and PERON, I. (2001) Influence of dietary electrolyte balance on the performance traits of broilers. Archives of Veterinary Science 6: 89–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
FRANCESCH, M. and BRUFAU, J. (2004) Nutritional factors affecting excreta/litter moisture and quality. World's Poultry Science Journal 60: 64–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
GORMAN, I. and BALNAVE, D. (1994) Effects of dietary mineral supplementation on the performance and mineral excretions of broilers at high ambient temperatures. British Poultry Science 35: 563–572.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
GROSS, W.B. and SIEGEL, H.S. (1983) Evaluation of the heterophil/lymphocyte ratio as a measure of stress in chickens. Avian Diseases 27: 972–979.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
HILLMAN, P.E., SCOTT, N.R. and VAN TIENHOVEN, A. (1985) Physiological responses and adaptations to hot and cold environments. In: Stress Physiology in Livestock, Vol. 3, Poultry (Yousef, M.K.Ed.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. Pp. 1–71.Google Scholar
HOOGE, D.M. (1995) Dietary electrolytes influence metabolic processes of poultry. Feedstuffs 67 (December): 14–21.Google Scholar
HOOGE, D.M. (2003) Practicalities of using dietary sodium and potassium supplements to improve poultry performance. In: Proc. Arkansas Nutr. Conf., Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA. September 9–11. Pp. 18.Google Scholar
HULAN, H.W., SIMONS, P.C.M. and VAN SCHAGEN, P.J.W. (1987) Effect of altering the cation anion (Na+KCl) and calcium content of the diet on general performance and incidence of tibial dyschondroplasia of broiler chickens housed in batteries. Nutrition Reports International 33: 397–408.Google Scholar
HURWITZ, S., COHEN, I. and BAR, A. (1973) Sodium and chloride requirements of chick: relationship to acidbase balance. Poultry Science 52: 903–909.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
JOHNSON, R.J. and KARUNAJEEWA, H. (1985) The effects of dietary minerals and electrolytes on the growth and physiology of the young chick. Journal of Nutrition 115: 1680–1690.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KARUNAJEEWA, H. and BARB, D.A. (1988) Influence of dietary electrolyte balance, source of added potassium and anticoccidial agents on the performance of male broilers. British Poultry Science 29: 137–147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KING, J.R. and FARNER, D.S. (1961) Energy metabolism thermoregulation and body temperature. In: Biology and Comparative Physiology of Birds. Vol. II. Ed. More Shell, . Amer J. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
LINSLEY, J.G. and BURGER, R.E. (1964) Respiratory and cardiovascular response in the hyperthermic domestic cock. Poultry Science 43: 138–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LOTT, B.D. (1991) The effect of feed intake on body temperature and water consumption of male broilers during heat exposure. Poultry Science 70: 756–759.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MACARI, M. (1996) Agua na avicultura industrial. FUNEP, Jaboticabal, Brazil.Google Scholar
MAXWELL, M.H. and ROBERTSON, G.W. (1998) The avian heterophil leukocyte: a review. World's Poultry Science Journal 54: 155–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MELLIER, A.L. and FORBES, P.M. (1966) Effect of altering the dietary cation-anion ratio on food consumption and growth of young chicks. Journal of Nutrition 90: 31–314.Google Scholar
MONGIN, P. (1980) Role of sodium, potassium and chloride in egg shell quality. In: Proceedings of Nutrition Conf. Florida. Gainesville, FL. Pp. 213–233.Google Scholar
MONGIN, P. (1981) Recent advances in dietary cation-anion balance: applications in poultry. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 40: 285–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MORENG, R.E. (1980) Temperature and vitamin requirements of the domestic fowl. Poultry Science 59: 782–785.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MURAKAMI, A.E., RONDON, E.O.O., MARTINS, E.N., PEREIRA, M.S. and SCAPINELLO, C. (2001) Sodium and chloride requirements of growing broiler chickens (twenty-one to forty-two days of age) fed cornsoybean diets. Poultry Science 80: 289–294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MURAKAMI, A.E., SALEH, E.A., ENGLAND, J.A., DICKEY, D.A., WATKINS, S.E. and WALDROUP, P.W. (1997) Effect of level and source of sodium on performance of male broilers to 56 days. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 6: 128–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MUSHTAQ, T., SARWAR, M., NAWAZ, H., MIRZA, M.A. and AHMAD, T. (2005) Effect and interactions of sodium and chloride on broiler starter performance (one-to-twenty-eight days) under subtropical summer condition. Poultry Science 84: 1716–1722.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
NAN, C.W., MANNING, B., PATEL, M.B. and MCGINNIS, J. (1979) Observations of the effect of different dietary sodium levels and coccidiostats (monensin and lasalocid) on growth, feed efficiency, water intake, and mortality in broilers. Poultry Science 58: 10–88.Google Scholar
NELSON, T.S., KIRBEY, L.K., JOHNSON, Z.B. and BEASLEY, J.N. (1981) Effect of altering the dietary cation and anion contents with magnesium and phosphorus on chick performance. Poultry Science 60: 1030–1035.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
NESHEIM, M.C., LEACH, R.M. Jr., ZIEGLER, T.R. and SERAFIN, J.A. (1964) Interrelationships between dietary levels of sodium, chlorine and potassium. Journal of Nutrition 84: 361–366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
NILIPOUR, A.H. (2000) Modern broilers require optimum ventilation. World Poultry 16: 30–31.Google Scholar
NILLIPOUR, A.H. and MELOG, (1999) Feeding techniques during heat stress. Poultry Digest 58:3, 34.Google Scholar
NRC (1994) Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. 9th revised Ed., National Research Council, Washington, USA.Google Scholar
PARDUE, S.L., THAXTON, J.P. and BRAKE, J. (1985) Role of ascorbic acid in chicks exposed to high environmental temperature. Journal of Applied Physiology 58: 1511–1516.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
PATIENCE, J.F. (1990) A review of the role of acid base balance in amino acid nutrition. Journal of Animal Science 68: 398–408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
PATIENCE, J.F., AUSTIC, R.E. and BOYD, R.D. (1987) Acid-base homeostasis in swine: nutritional perspective. Feedstuff. 6th July. Pp.13–18.Google Scholar
RAUP, T.J. and BOTTJE, W.G. (1990) Effect of carbonated water on arterial pH, PCO2, and plasma lactate in heat-stressed broilers. British Poultry Science 31: 377–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
REECE, F.N., LOTT, B.D. and DEATON, J.W. (1984) The effects of feed form, protein profile, energy level, and gender on broiler performance in warm (26.7°C) environments. Poultry Science 63: 1906–1911.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ROBBINS, K.R., HITCHCOCK, J.P. and MITCHELL, N.S. (1982) Potassium induced changes in muscle free amino acid concentrations in chicks. Journal of Nutrition 112: 2122–2129.Google ScholarPubMed
ROMIJN, C. and LOKHORST, W. (1966) Heat regulation and energy metabolism in the domestic fowl. In: Physiology of the Domestic Fowl. Ed. Horton-Smith, C. and Amoroso, E.C.. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh. Pp. 211–217.Google Scholar
RONDON, E.O.O., MURAKAMI, A.E. and FURLAN, A.C. (2000) Exigencias nutricionais de sodio a cloro a estimativa do melhor balango eletrolitico da ragao para frangos de corte na fase preinicial (17 dias de idade). Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia 29: 1162–1166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
RONDON, E.O.O., MURAKAMI, A.E., FURLAN, A.C., MOREIRA, I. and MACARI, M. (2001) Sodium and chloride requirements of growing broiler chickens fed corn-soybean diets (One to Twenty-One days of age). Poultry Science 80: 592–598.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
RUIZ-LOPEZ, R. and AUSTIC, R.E. (1993) The effect of selected minerals on the acid base balance of growing chicks. Poultry Science 72: 1054–1062.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SAUVEUR, B. and MONGIN, P. (1974) Interrelationships between dietary concentrations of sodium, potasium and chloride in laying hens. British Poultry Science 19: 475–485.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SHANNON, D.W.F. and BROWN, W.O. (1969) Calorimetric studies on the effect of dietary energy source and environmental temperature on the metabolic efficiency of energy utilization by mature Light Sussex cockerels. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 72: 479–789.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SIEGEL, H.S.L., DRURY, N. and PATTERSON, W.C. (1974) Blood parameters of broilers grown in coops and on litter at two temperatures. Poultry Science 53: 1016–1024.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SMITH, A., ROSE, S.P., WELLS, R.G. and PIRGOZLIEV, V. (2000a) The effect of changing the excreta moisture of caged laying hens on the excreta and microbial contamination of their egg shells. British Poultry Science 41: 168–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SMITH, A., ROSE, S.P., WELLS, R.G. and PIRGOZLIEV, V. (2000b) Effect of excess dietary sodium, potassium, calcium and phosphorus on excreta moisture of laying hens. British Poultry Science 41: 598–607.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SMITH, M.O. and TEETER, R.G. (1988) Practical application of potassium chloride and fasting during naturally occurring summer heat stress. Poultry Science 67 (Suppl. 1): 36.Google Scholar
SOCHA, M.T., ENSLEY, S.M., TOMLINSON, D.J. and JOHNSON, B. (2002) Variability of water consumption and potential impact on animal performance. In: Proc. Calif. Anim. Nutr. Conf., Fresno, California. Pp. 81–91.Google Scholar
TEETER, R.G. (1997a) Balancing the electrolyte equation. Feed Mix 5: 22–26.Google Scholar
TEETER, R.G. (1997b) The electrolyte: acid-base connection. Feed Mix 5: 32–34.Google Scholar
TEETER, R.G. and SMITH, M.O. (1987) Electrolytes in poultry nutrition. Proceedings of Georgia Nutrition Conference for the Feed Industry. University of Georgia. Atlanta. Pp. 160–169.Google Scholar
TEETER, R.G., SMITH, M.O. (1986) High chronic ambient temperature stress effects on broiler acid base balance and their response to supplemental ammonium chloride, potassium chloride and potassium carbonate. Poultry Science 65: 1777–1781.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
TEETER, R.G., SMITH, M.O. and OWENS, F.N. (1985) Chronic heat stress and respiratory alkalosis: occurrence and treatment in broiler chicks. Poultry Science 64: 1060–1064.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
VECEREK, V., STRAKOVA, E., SUCHY, P. and VOSLAROVA, E. (2002) Influence of high environmental temperature on production and haematological and biochemical indexes in broiler chickens. Czech Journal of Animal Science 47: 176–182.Google Scholar
WHITTOW, G.C. (1965) Energy Metabolism. In: Avian Physiology. 2nd ed. Ed. Sturkie, P.D.Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, New York, USA. Pp. 239–271.Google Scholar
YAHAV, S. (2000) Domestic fowl-Strategies to confront environmental conditions. Avian and Poultry Biology Reviews 11: 81–95.Google Scholar
YAHAV, S. and HURWITZ, S. (1996) Induction of thermotolerance in male broiler chickens by temperature conditioning at an early age. Poultry Science 75: 402–406.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
YAHAV, S., STRASCHNOW, A., LUGER, D., SHINDER, D., TANNY, J. and COHEN, S. (2004) Ventilation, sensible heat loss, broiler energy, and water balance under harsh environmental conditions. Poultry Science 83: 253–258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
YOUSEF, M.K. (1985) Stress Physiology in Livestock. In: Vol. III-Poultry. CRC Press, Inc. USA. Pp.130–134.Google Scholar
ZHOU, W.T., FUJITA, M. and YAMAMOTO, S. (1999) Thermoregulatory responses and blood viscosity in dehydrated heat exposed broilers (Gallus Domesticus). Journal of Thermal Biology 24: 185–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar