Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T08:35:09.512Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Effects of egg of origin and chick post-hatch nutrition on broiler live performance and meat yields

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2007

S.L. Vieira  and
E.T. Moran Jr.
S.L. Vieira
Affiliation:
Departamento de Zootecnia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 7712, C.P. 776, Porto Alegre 91501–970, Brazil
E.T. Moran Jr.
Affiliation:
Department of Poultry Science, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849–5416, USA
Get access

Abstract

The weight of hatching eggs can influence broiler live performance regardless of hen age. Egg composition is altered with egg weight, but such alterations do not seem to have major effects on broiler growth and processing yields. The chick hatches with a yolk sac which provides nutrients for the transition to independent feeding. Alterations in egg weight and composition do not affect the proportion of yolk sac to body weight as much as its composition, particularly with eggs from very young hens. The contents of the yolk sac are high in fat and protein but very low in carbohydrate, which could lead to ketosis with prolonged fasting. Enhancing the first feed with either carbohydrate or gluconeogenics such as propionic acid may alleviate this ketosis and help early development. The digestive system of the chick is physically complete at hatching but is not fully competent at nutrient retrieval as many enterocytes are orientated to immunoglobulin uptake. Villi length and enzymatic activity increases with feeding, reaching maturity within a few weeks. Access to food and water after hatching varies, and long delays until placement are common. These delays cause losses in live performance. Loss in body weight due to late placement or undernutrition may also affect early muscle development. These adverse effects extend to marketing age and reduced meat yield. Factors that affect early chick development are gaining interest as the length of time to market progressively decreases and the chick's first days represent an increasing proportion of the total time for production.

Keywords

Broiler chickegg and chick compositionpost-hatch nutritionyolk sac
Type
Research Article
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 55 , Issue 2 , June 1999 , pp. 125 - 142
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1999

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allbrook, D.B., Han, M.F. and Hellmuth, A.E. (1971) Population of muscle satellite cells in relation to age and mitotic activity. Pathology 3: 233–243CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ambrosen, T. and Rotenberg, S. (1981) External and internal quality and chemical composition of hen eggs as related to hen age and selection for production traits. Acta Agricultura Scandinauica 31: 139–152CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Austic, R.E. (1985) Development and adaptation of protein digestion. Journal of Nutrition 115: 686–697CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bakhuis, W.L. (1974) Observations on hatching movements in the chick (Gallus domesticus). Journal of Comparative Plzysiology and Psychology 87: 997–1003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baranyiova, E. (1972) Influence of deutectomy, food intake and fasting on liver glycogen content in chickens after hatching. Actn Veterinaria Brno 41: 149–159Google Scholar
Baranyiova, E. and Holman, J. (1976) Morphological changes in the intestinal wall in fed and fasted chickens in the first week after hatching. Acta Veterinaria Brno 45: 151–158Google Scholar
Bellairs, R., Backhouse, M. and Evans, R.J. (1972) A correlated chemical and morphological study of egg yolk and its constituents. Micron 3: 328–346Google Scholar
Best, E.E. (1966) The changes of some blood constituents during the initial post-hatching period in chickens. II. Blood total ketone bodies and the reduced glutathione/ketone body relationships. British Poultry Science 7: 23–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bielorai, R., Tamir, M., Alumot, E., Bar, A. and Hurwitz, S. (1973) Digestion and absorption of protein along the intestinal tract of chicks fed raw and heated soybean meal. Journal of Nutrition 103: 1291–1298CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bintliff, S. and Walker, B.E. (1960) Radioautographic study of skeletal muscle regeneration. American Journal of Anatomy 106: 233–246CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blanch, A., Barroeta, A.C., Baucells, M.D. and Puchal, F. (1995) The nutritive value of dietary fats in relation to their chemical composition. Apparent fat availability and metabolizable energy in two-week-old chicks. Poultry Science 74: 1335–1340CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burley, R.W. and Vadehra, D.V. (1989) The Avian Egg: Chemistry and Biology, John Wiley & Sons, New YorkGoogle Scholar
Cahaner, A., Nitsan, Z. and Nir, I. (1986) Reproductive performance of broiler lines divergently selected on abdominal fat. Poultry Science 65: 1236–1243CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carew, L.B., Machemmer, L.H., Shar, R.W. and Foss, D.C. (1972) Fat absorption in the very young chick. Poultry Science 51: 738–742CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Casteel, E.T., Wilson, J.L., Buhr, R.J. and Sander, J.E. (1994) The influence of extended posthatch holding time and placement density on broiler performance. Poultry Science 73: 1679–1684CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheek, D.B. (1985) The control of cell mass and replication. The DNA unit: a personal 20-year study. Early Human Development 12: 211–239CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chung, R.A. and Stadelman, W.J. (1965) A study of variations in the structure of the hen's egg. British Poultry Science 6: 277–282CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cunningham, F. E., Cotterill, O.J. and Funk, E.M. (1960) The effect of season and age of birds on the chemical composition of egg white. Poultry Science 39: 300–308CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dehnel, G. (1929) Sur la soi-disant “plaque axiale” dans le developpement des oiseaux. Comptes Rendus des Seances de la Societe de Biologie e des ses Filiales 100: 258–260Google Scholar
Donaldson, W.E. and Christensen, V.L. (1991) Dietary carbohydrate level and glucose metabolism in turkey poults. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 98A: 347–350CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donaldson, W.E., Christensen, V.L. and Ferket, P.R. (1994) Administration of propionate to day-old turkeys. Poultry Science 73: 1249–1253CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edwards, H.M. (1964) The influence of breed and/or strain on the fatty acid composition of egg lipids. Poultry Science 43: 751–754CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edwards, H.M., Marion, J. E. and Driggers, J.C. (1962) Response of deutectomized chicks to dietary fat supplementation. Poultry Science 41: 1050–1052CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elliot, T.S., Wiggington, R.C. and Corbin, K.C. (1943) The number and size of muscle fibres in the rat soleus in relation to age, sex, and exercise. Anatomic Record 85: 307–308Google Scholar
Enesco, M. and Puddy, D. (1964) Increase in the number of nuclei and weight in skeletal muscles of rats of various ages. American Journal of Anatomy 114: 235–244CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Escribano, F., Rahn, B.E. and Sell, J. (1988) Development of lipase activity in yolk membrane and pancreas of young turkeys. Poultry Scictzce 67: 1089–1097CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fanguy, R.C., Misra, L.K., Vo, K.V., Blohowiak, C.C. and Krueger, W.F. (1980) Effect of delayed placement on mortality and growth performance of commercial broilers. Poultry Science 59: 1215–1220CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finkler, M.S., Van Orman, J.B. and Sotherland, P.R. (1998) Experimental manipulation of egg quality in chickens: influence of albumen and yolk on the size and body composition of nearterm embryos in a precocial bird. Journal of Comparative Physiology B 168 17–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hager, J.E. and Beane, W.L. (1983) Posthatch incubation time and early growth of broiler chickens. Poulty Science 62: 247–254CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halbersleben, D.L. and Mussehl, F.E. (1922) The relation of egg weight to chick weight at hatching. Poultry Science 1: 143–144CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halevy, O., Bisan, J. and Rozenboim, J. (1998) Various light source treatments affect body and skeletal muscle satellite cell proliferation in broilers. Comparatibe Biochemistry and Physiology 120: 313–323Google ScholarPubMed
Hammond, J.C. (1944) Lack of water a cause of loose, slimy gizzard linings accompanying early mortality in poults. Poultry Scierzce 23: 477–480CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hearn, P.J. (1986) Making use of small hatching eggs in an integrated broiler company. British Poultry Science 27: 498Google Scholar
Hoiby, M., Aulie, A. and Bjonnes, P.D. (1987) Anaerobic metabolism in fowl embryos during normal incubation. Comparatizv Biochemistry and Physiology 86A: 91–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hume, M.E., Corrier, D.E., Ivie, G.W. and Deloach, J.R. (1993) Metabolism of 14Cpropionic acid in broiler chicks. Poultry Science 72: 786–793CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jeanson, S.E. and Kellogg, T.F. (1992) Ontogeny of taurocholate accumulation in the terminal ileal mucosal cells of young chicks. Poultry Science 71: 367–372CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
John, T.M., George, J.C. and Moran, E.T. (1987) Pre- and post-hatch ultrastructure and metabolic changes in the hatching muscle of turkey embryos from antibiotic and glucose treated eggs. Cytobios 49: 197–210Google ScholarPubMed
John, T.M., George, J. C. and Moran, E.T. (1988) Metabolic changes in pectoral muscle and liver of turkey embryos in relation to hatching: influence of glucose and antibiotictreatment of eggs. Poultry Science 67: 463–469CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joubert, J.J., Potgieter, G.F., Noneyborne, N.S. and Cloete, A. (1981) The influence of egg size on the future development of broilers. Zootecnia ltzternational January: 24–25Google Scholar
Katanbaf, M.S., Dunnington, E.A. and Siegel, P.B. (1988) Allomorphic relationships from hatching at 56 days of age in parental lines and F, crosses of chickens selected 27 generations for high or low body weight. Growth, Development arid Ageing 52: 11–22Google ScholarPubMed
Kienholz, E.W. and Ackerman, R.W. (1970) Oral food slurry injection for newly hatched poults. Poultry Science 49: 678–680CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kingston, D.J. (1979) Some hatchery factors involved in early chick mortality. Australian Veterinary Journal 55: 418–421CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kline, L., Meehan, J.J. and Sugihara, T.F. (1965) Relation between layer age and egg-product yields and quality. Food Technology August 114–119Google Scholar
Krogdhal, A. and Sell, J. (1989) Influence of age on lipase, amylase and protease activities on pancreatic tissue and intestinal contents of young turkeys. Poultry Science 68: 1561–1568CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kulka, R.G. and Duskin, U. (1964) Patterns of growth and amylase activity in the developing chick pancreas. Biochemica et Biophysica Acta 91: 506–514Google ScholarPubMed
Kusuhara, S. and Ishida, K. (1974) Histochemical observations on the enzyme of chicken yolk sac membrane. British Poultry Science 15: 391–394CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Latour, M.A., Peebles, E.D., Boyle, C.R., Doyle, S.M., Panski, T. and Brake, J.D. (1996) Effects of breeder hen age and dietary fat on embryonic and neonatal broiler serum lipids and glucose. Poultry Science 75: 695–701CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Latour, M.A., Peebles, E.D., Doyle, S.M., Panski, T., Smith, T.W. and Boyle, C.R. (1998) Broiler breeder age and dietary fat influence the yolk fatty acid profiles of fresh eggs and newly hatched chicks. Poultry Science 77: 47–53CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, X., Nakano, T., Sunwoo, H.H., Paek, B.H., Chae, H.S. and Sim, J.S. (1998) Effects of egg and yolk weights on yolk antibody (IgY) production in laying chickens. Poultry Science 77: 266–270CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lineweaver, H. and Murray, C. (1947) Identification of the trypsin inhibitor of egg white with ovomucoid. journal of Biological Chemistry 171: 565–581CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marchaim, U. and Kulka, R.G. (1967) The non-parallel increase of amylase, chymotrypsinogen, and procarboxypeptidase in the developing chick pancreas. Biochemica et Biophysica Acta 146: 553–559CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marion, W.W., Nordskog, A.W., Tolman, H.S. and Forsythe, R.H. (1964) Egg composition as influenced by breeding, egg size, age and season. Poultry Science 43: 225–264CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marion, J.E., Woodroof, J.G. and Tindell, D. (1966) Physical and chemical properties of eggs as affected by breeding and age of hens. Poultry Science 45: 1189–1195CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mauro, A. (1961) Satellite cell of skeletal muscle fibres. Journal of Biophysical and Biochemical Cytology 9: 493–495CrossRefGoogle Scholar
May, K.N. and Stadelman, W.J. (1960) Some factors affecting components of eggs from adult hens. Poultry Science 39: 560–565CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McClung, M.R. and Smith, R.M. (1949) Relationship between egg weight and growth rate of market chickens. Poultry Science 28: 774Google Scholar
McNaughton, J.L., Deaton, J.W., Reece, EN. and Haynes, R.L. (1978) Effect of age of parents and hatching egg weight on broiler chick mortality. Poultry Science 57: 38–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michael, E. and Hodges, R.D. (1973) Histochemical changes in the fowl small intestine associated with enhanced absorption after feed restriction. Histochemie 36: 39–49CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Misra, L.K. (1978) Effect of delayed chick placement on subsequent growth and mortality of commercial broiler chicks. Poultry Science 57: 1158Google Scholar
Misra, L.K. and Fanguy, P.C. (1978) Effect of placement on subsequent growth and mortality of commercial broiler chicks. Poultry Science 57: 1158Google Scholar
Moran, E.T. (1985) Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates in fowl through perinatal development. Journal of Nutrition 115: 665–674CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moran, E.T. (1987) Protein requirement, egg formation and the hen's ovulatory cycle. journal of Nutrition 117: 612–618CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moran, E.T. (1988) Subcutaneous glucose is more advantageous in establishing the posthatch poult than oral administration. Poultry Science 67: 493–501CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moran, E.T. (1990) Effect of egg weight, glucose administration at hatch, and delayed access to feed and water on the poult at 2 weeks of age. Poultry Science 69: 1718–1723CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, R.H., Hessels, D.F. and Bishop, R.J. (1968) The relationship between hatching egg weight and subsequent performance of broiler chickens. British Poultry Science 9: 305–315CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moss, F.P. (1968) The relationship between the dimensions of the fibres and the number of nuclei during normal growth of skeletal muscle in the domestic fowl. American journal of Anatomy 122: 555–564CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moss, F.P. and Leblond, C.P. (1971) Satellite cells as the source of nuclei in muscles of growing rats. Anatomical Record 170: 421–436CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mozdziak, P.E., Schultz, E. and Cassens, R.G. (1997) Myonuclear accretion is a major determinant of avian skeletal muscle growth. American journal of Physiology 272: C565–C571CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murakami, H., Akiba, Y. and Horiguchi, M. (1988) Energy and protein utilisation in newly-hatched broiler chicks: studies on the early nutrition of poultry. Japanese Journal of Zootechnical Science 59: 890–895Google Scholar
Murakami, H., Akiba, Y. and Horiguchi, M. (1992) Growth and utilization of nutrients in newly-hatched chicks with or without removal of residual yolk. Growth, Development and Ageing 56: 75–84Google ScholarPubMed
Nakamura, R., Takayama, M., Nakamura, K. and Umemura, O. (1980) Constituent proteins of globulin fraction obtained from egg white. Agricultural and Biological Chemistry 44: 2357–2362Google Scholar
National Research Council (NRC) (1994) Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 9th Revised Edition, National Academy of Science, Washington, DCGoogle Scholar
Newey, H., Sanford, P.A. and Smith, D.H. (1970) Effects of fasting on intestinal transfer of sugars and amino acids in vitro. Journal of Physiology 208: 705–724CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nir, I. and Levanon, M. (1993) Effect of posthatch holding time on performance and on residual yolk and liver composition. Poultry Science 72: 1994–1997CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nir, I., Nitsan, Z. and Ben-Avraham, G. (1993) Comparative growth and development of the digestive organs and of some enzymes in broiler and egg type chicks after hatching. British Poultry Science 34: 523–532CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nitsan, Z., Dunnington, E.A. and Siegel, P.B. (1991a)Organ growth and digestive enzyme levels to 15 days of age in lines of chickens differing in body weight. Poultry Science 70: 2040–2048CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nitsan, Z., En-Avraham, G., Zoref, Z. and Nir, I. (1991b) Growth and development of digestive organs and some enzymes in broiler chicks after hatching. British Poultry Science 32: 515–523CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noble, R.C. and Cocchi, M. (1990) Lipid metabolism and the neonatal chicken. Progress in Lipid Research 29: 107–140CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noble, R.C., Lonsdale, F., Connor, K. and Brown, D. (1986) Changes in the lipid metabolism of the chick embryo with parental age. Poultry Science 65: 409–416CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noy, Y. and Sklan, D. (1995) Digestion and absorption in the young chick. Poultry Science 74: 366–373CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noy, Y. and Sklan, D. (1996) Routes of yolk utilisation in the newly hatched chick. Poultry Science 75: 13 (abstract)Google Scholar
Noy, Y. and Sklan, D. (1997) Posthatch development in poultry. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 6: 344–354CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'neil, J.B. (1955) Percentage size of chick at hatching and its relationship to growth and mortality. Poultry Science 34: 761–764CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Osuga, D.T. and Feeney, R.E. (1977) Egg proteins. In: Food Proteins (Whittaker, J.R. and Tannenbaum, S.R., Eds), Avi Publishing Company, Westport, pp. 209–266Google Scholar
Overton, J. and Shoup, J. (1964) Fine structure of cell surface specialisations in the maturing duodenal mucosa of the chick. Journal of Cellular Biology 21: 75–85CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phelps, V.E., Moran, E.T. and Spano, J.S. (1992) Propionic acid as a dietary gluconeogenic source to relieve poult “starveouts”. Poultry Science 71: 27 (abstract)Google Scholar
Pinchasov, Y. (1991) Relationship between the weight of hatching eggs and subsequent early performance of broiler chicks. British Poultry Science 32: 109–115CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pinchasov, Y. and Noy, Y. (1993) Comparison of post-hatch holding time and subsequent early performance of broiler chicks and turkey poults. British Poultry Science 34: 111–120CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinchasov, Y. and Elmaliah, S. (1994) Broiler chick responses to anorectic agents: 1. Dietary acetic and propionic acids and the digestive system. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 48: 371–376CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pitts, G.C. (1986) Cellular aspects of growth and catch-up growth in the rat: a revaluation. Growth 50: 419–436.Google Scholar
Polin, D. and Hussein, T.H. (1982) The effect of bile acid on lipid and nitrogen retention, carcass composition and dietary metabolisable energy in very young chicks. Poultry Science 61: 1697–1707CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pons, A., Garcia, F.J., Palou, A. and Alemany, M. (1986) Amino-acid metabolism, enzyme activities in the liver, intestine and yolk sac membrane of developing domestic fowl. Archives Internationales de Physiologie et Biochemie 94: 219–226CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prasad, M.R. (1977) Developmental patterns of phospholipid metabolising enzymes in the liver and in the small intestine of the chick embryo. Indian Journal Biochemistry and Biophysics 14: 310–315Google ScholarPubMed
Proudfoot, F.G. and Hulan, H.W. (1981) The influence of hatching egg size on the subsequent performance of broiler chickens. Poultry Science 60: 2167–2170CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Proudfoot, F.G., Hulan, H.W. and McRae, K.B. (1982) Effect of hatching egg size from semidwarf and normal maternal meat parent genotypes on the performance of broiler chickens. Poultry Science 61: 655–660CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ralston, E. and Hall, Z.W. (1992) Restricted distribution of mRNA produced from a single nucleus in hybrid myotubes. Journal of Cellular Biology 119: 1063–1068CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Renner, R. and Hill, F.W. (1960) The utilization of corn oil, lard and tallow by chickens of various ages. Poultry Science 39: 849–854CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Romanoff, A.L. (1960) The Avian Embryo: Structural and Functional Development, The Macmillan Company, New YorkGoogle Scholar
Romanoff, A.L. (1967) Biochemistry of the Avian Embryo: a Quantitative Analysis of Prenatal Development, John Wiley & Sons, New YorkGoogle Scholar
Romanoff, A.L. and Romanoff, A.J. (1949) The Avian Egg, John Wiley & Sons, New YorkGoogle Scholar
Rose, M.E.M. and Orlans, E. (1981) Immunoglobulins in the egg, embryo and young chick. Developmental and Comparative Immunology 5: 15–20CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rose, M.E., Orlans, E. and Buttress, N. (1974) Immunoglobulin classes in the hen's egg: their segregation in yolk and white. European Journal of Immunology 4: 521–523CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roseborough, R.W., Geis, E., Henderson, K. and Frobish, L.T. (1978) Glycogen metabolism in the turkey embryo. Poultry Science 57: 747–751CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, H. and Tatrie, N.H. (1968) Mutual solubility of the lipid components of egg yolk low- density lipoprotein. Canadian Journal of Biocheinistry 46: 979–982CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schultz, E.M., Gibson, C. and Champion, T. (1978) Satellite cells are mitotically quiescent in mature mouse muscle: an EM and radioautographic study. Journal of Experimental Zoology 206: 451–456CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Serafin, J.A. and Nesheim, M.C. (1970) Influence of dietary heat-labile factors in soybean meal upon bile acid pools and turnover in the chick. Journal of Nutrition 100: 786–796CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shanawany, M.M. (1984) Inter-relationship between egg weight, parental age and embryonic development. British Poultry Science 25: 449–455CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shanawany, M.M. (1987) Hatching weight in relation to egg weight in domestic birds. World's Poultry Science Journal 43: 107–115CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shenstone, F.S. (1968) The gross composition, chemistry and physico-chemical basis of organization of the yolk and the white. In: Egg Quality: A Study of the Hen's Egg (Carter, T.C., Ed.), Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh pp. 26–58Google Scholar
Sibbald, I. (1979) Passage of feed through the adult rooster. Poultry Science 58: 446–459CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siddons, R.C. (1969) Intestinal disaccharidase activities in the chick. Biochemical lournu1 112: 51–59Google ScholarPubMed
Smith, J.H. (1963) Relation of body size to muscle cell size and number in the chicken. Poultry Science 42: 283–290CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sulaiman, A., Peebles, E.D., Pansky, T., Kellogg, T.F., Maslin, W.R. and Keirs, R.W. (1996) Histological evidence for a role of the yolk stalk in gut absorption of yolk in the post-hatch broiler chick. Poultry Science 75: 548Google Scholar
Tarvid, I. (1992) Effect of early postnatal long-term fasting on the development of peptide hydrolysis in chicks. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 101: 161–166CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tufft, L.S. and Jensen, L.S. (1991) Effect of age of hen, egg weight, and sex on chick performance and lipid retention. Poultry Science 70: 2411–2418CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tunmann, P. and Silberzahn, H. (1961) Uber die Kohlenhydrate im Hhnerei. I.Freie Kohlenhydrate. Zeitschriff fiir Lebensmittel – uiitersuchung und – Forschiing 115: 121–128CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uni, Z., Noy, Y. and Sklan, D. (1995) Posthatch changes in morphology and function of the small intestines in heavy- and light-strain chicks. Poultry Science 74: 1622–1629CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Upp, C.W. (1928) Egg weight, day old chick weight and rate of growth in Single Comb Rhode Island Red chicks. Poultry Science 7: 151–155CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Varadarajulu, P. and Cunningham, F. E. (1972) A study of selected characteristics of hen's egg yolk. 3. Influence of breed, strain, and age of birds. Poultry Science 51: 1327–1331CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vieira, S.L. and Moran, E.T. (1998a) Comparison of eggs and chicks from broiler breeders of extremely different ages. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 7: 372–376CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vieira, S.L. and Moran, E.T. (1998b) Broiler chicks hatched from egg weight extremes and diverse breeder strains. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 7: 392–402CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vieira, S.L. and Moran, E.T. (1998c) Broiler yields using chicks from extremes in breeder age and response to dietary propionate at placement. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 7: 320–327CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vieira, S.L. and Moran, E.T. (1998d) Broiler yields using chicks from extremes in hatching egg weight of diverse strains. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 7: 339–346CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vieira, S.L. and Moran, E.T. (1999a) Effects of delayed placement and used litter on broiler yields. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 8: 75–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vieira, S.L. and Moran, E.T. (1999b) Starter vs. corn to initiate broiler feeding at placement. Journal of Applied Poultry Research (accepted for publication)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waldroup, P.W., Hiliard, C.M., Grigg, J.E. and Harris, G.C. (1974) The effectiveness of drinking solutions given to young turkey poults in drinking water or by oral and parenteral dosage. Poultry Scieiice 53: 1056–1060CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Washburn, K.W. and Guill, R.A. (1974) Relationship of embryo weight as a percent of egg weight to efficiency of feed utilization in the hatched chick. Poultry Science 53: 766–769CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Westerfeld, B.L., Adams, A.W., Erwin, L.E. and Deyoe, C.W. (1970) Effect of a chemical additive on Salmonella in poultry feed and host birds. Poultry Scieiicv 49: 1319–1323CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
White, P.T. (1974) Experimental studies on the circulatory system of the late chick embryo. Journal of Experimental Biology 61: 571–592CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whiting, T.S. and Pesti, G.M. (1983) Effects of the dwarfing gene (dw) on egg weight, chick weight, and chick weightegg weight ratio in a commercial broiler strain. Poultry Science 62: 2297–2302CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiley, W.H. (1950) The influence of egg weight on the pre-hatching and post-hatching growth rate in the fowl. II. Egg weight-chick weight ratios. Poultry Science 29: 595–604CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, C., Godfrey, G.F. and Thompson, R.B. (1951) The effect of rapidity of hatching on growth, egg production, mortality and sex ratio in the domestic fowl. Poultry Science 30: 599–606CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, H.R. (1991) Interrelationships of egg size, chick size, posthatching growth and hatchability. World's Poultry Science Journal 47: 5–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winick, M. and Noble, A. (1966) Cellular response in rats during malnutrition at various ages. Journal of Nutrition 89: 300–306CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wittman, J. and Weiss, A. (1981) Studies on the metabolism of glycogen and adenine nucleotides in embryonic chick liver at the end of incubation. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 69C: 1–6Google Scholar
Wyatt, C.L., Weaver, W.D. and Beane, W.L. (1985) Influence of egg size, egg shell quality, and posthatch holding time on broiler performance. Poultry Science 64: 2049–2055CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wyatt, C.L., Weaver, W.D., Beane, W.L., Denbow, D.M. and Gross, W.B. (1986) Influence of hatcher holding times on several physiological parameters associated with the immune system of chickens. Poultry Science 65: 2156–2164CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xin, H. and Lee, K. (1997) Physiological evaluation of chick morbidity during extended posthatch holding. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 6: 417–421CrossRefGoogle Scholar