Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-lnqnp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T13:38:55.892Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Immunological techniques in avian studies

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 August 2016

H. AL-KHALIFA
H. AL-KHALIFA*
Affiliation:
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, PO Box 24885, 13109 Safat, Kuwait
*
Corresponding author: hkhalifa@kisr.edu.kw
Get access

Abstract

There is a wide spectrum of techniques available to evaluate the functional aspects of the immune system in both humans and animals, including avian species. Some of the immunological techniques are qualitative and others are quantitative. In this paper, these techniques will be reviewed starting with a description of the nature of the antibody-antigen interaction, followed by the immune techniques that are used to detect immune complexes (i.e. antigen-antibody responses) whether free or associated with cells, then the numerous immune markers or parameters that are used to measure the avian immune responses.

Keywords

avianimmunitytechniques
Type
Reviews
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 72 , Issue 3 , September 2016 , pp. 573 - 584
Copyright
Copyright © World's Poultry Science Association 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

ABDUKALYKOVA, S. and RUIZ-FERIA, C.A. (2006) Arginine and vitamin E improve the cellular and humoral immune response of broiler chickens. International Journal of Poultry Science 5: 121-127.Google Scholar
AL-MAYAH, A.A.S. (2006) Immune Response of Broiler Chicks to DL-Methionine Supplementation at Different Ages. International Journal of Poultry Science 5: 169-172.Google Scholar
ANGULO, R. and FULCHER, D.A. (1998) Measurement of Candida-specific blastogenesis: comparison of carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester labelling of T cells, thymidine incorporation, and CD69 expression. Cytometry 34: 143.Google Scholar
ARUNACHALAM, K., GILL, H.S. and CHANDRA, R.K. (2000) Enhancement of natural immune function by dietary consumption of Bifidobactrium lactis (HN019). European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 54: 263-267.Google Scholar
BABU, U.S., WIESENFELD, P.L., RAYBOURNE, R.B., MYERS, M.J. and GAINES, D. (2005) Effect of dietary fishmeal on cell-mediated immune response of laying hens. International Journal of Poultry Science 4: 652-656.Google Scholar
BACON, L.D. (1992) Measurement of immune competence in chickens. Poultry Science 4: 187-195.Google Scholar
BARBER, M.D., FEARON, K.C.H. and ROSS, J.A. (2005) Eicosapentaenoic acid modulates the immune response but has no effect on a mimic of antigen-specific responses. Nutrition 21: 588-593.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BARTLETT, J.R. and SMITH, M.O. (2003) Effects of different levels of zinc on the performance and immunocompetence of broilers under heat stress. Poultry Science 82: 1580-1588.Google Scholar
BEDECARRATS, G.Y. and LEESON, S. (2006) Dietary lutein influences immune response in laying hens. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 15: 183-189.Google Scholar
BIRD, J.J., BROWN, D.R., MULLEN, A.C., MOSKOWITZ, N.H., MAHOWALD, M.A., SIDER, J.R., GAJEWSKI, T.F., WANG, C.-R. and REINER, S.L. (1998) Helper T Cell Differentiation Is Controlled by the Cell Cycle. Immunity 9: 229-237.Google Scholar
BOYD, R. and WICK, G. (1980) Killer cells in the chicken: a microcytotoxicity assay using antigen-coated erythrocytes as targets. Journal of Immunological Methods 35: 233-247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BRENNAN, C.P., HENDRICKS III, G.L., EL-SHEIKH, T.M. and MASHALY, M.M. (2002) Melatonin and the enhancement of immune responses in immature male chickens. Poultry Science 81: 371-375.Google Scholar
BUNCHASAK, C., POOSUWAN, K., NUKRAEW, R., MARKVICHITR, K. and CHOOTHESA, A. (2005) Effect of dietary protein on egg production and immunity responses of laying hens during peak production period. International Journal of Poultry Science 4: 701-708.Google Scholar
CALDER, P.C. (2001) N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation and immunity: pouring oil on troubled waters or another fishy tale? (Special issue: Celebrating Exciting Nutrition Research in the Next Century). Nutrition Research 21: 309-341.Google Scholar
CALDER, P.C. (2007) Immunological parameters: what do they mean? The journal of nutrition 137: 773-780.Google Scholar
CALDER, P.C., YAQOOB, P., THIES, F., WALLACE, F.A. and MILES, E.A. (2002) Fatty acids and lymphocyte functions. British Journal of Nutrition 87: S31-S48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CHAN, M.M., CHEN, C.H. and COOPER, M.D. (1988) Identification of avian homologues of mammalian CD4 and CD8 antigens. Journal of Immunology 140: 2133.Google Scholar
CHEEMA, M.A., QURESHI, M.A. and HAVENSTEIN, G.B. (2003) A comparison of the immune profile of commercial broiler strains when raised on marginal and high protein diets. International Journal of Poultry Science 2: 300-312.Google Scholar
CHEN, C.H., CIHAK, J., LOSCH, U. and COOPER, M.D. (1988) Differential expression of two T cell receptors, TcR1 and TcR2, on chicken lymphocytes. European Journal of Immunology 18: 539-543.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CHEN, H.L., LI, D.F., CHANG, B.Y., GONG, L.M., DAI, J.G. and YI, G.F. (2003a) Effects of Chinese herbal polysaccharides on the immunity and growth performance of young broilers. Poultry Science 82: 364-370.Google Scholar
CHEN, H.L., LI, D.F., CHANG, B.Y., GONG, L.M., PIAO, X.S., YI, G.F. and ZHANG, J.X. (2003b) Effects of lentinan on broiler splenocyte proliferation, interleukin-2 production, and signal transduction. Poultry Science 82: 760-766.Google Scholar
CHRISTE, P. (2002) Intraseasonal Variation in immune defence, body mass and hematocrit in adult house martins Delichon urbica. Journal of Avian Biology 33: 321-325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
EDELMAN, A.S., SANCHEZ, P.L., ROBINSON, M.E., HOCHWALD, G.M. and THORBECKE, G.J. (1986) Primary and secondary wattle swelling response to phytohemagglutinin as a measure of immunocompetence in chickens. Avian Diseases 30: 105-111.Google Scholar
EEVA, T., HASSELQUIST, D., LANGEFORS, A., TUMMELEHT, L., NIKINMAA, M. and ILMONENND, P. (2005) Pollution related effects on immune function and stress in a free-living population of pied flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca. Journal of Avian Biology 36: 405-412.Google Scholar
ELSAFTY, S.A., ALI, U.M. and FATHI, M.M. (2006) Imuunological parameters and laying performance of Nacked Neck and normally feathered genetypes of chicken under winter conditions of Egypt. International Journal of Poultry Science 5: 780-785.Google Scholar
FAIRBROTHER, A. and FOWLES, J. (1990) Subchronic effects of sodium selenite and selenomethionine on several immune functions in mallards. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 19: 836-844.Google Scholar
FARNELL, M.B., CRIPPEN, T.L., HE, H.Q., SWAGGERTY, C.L. and KOGUT, M.H. (2003a) Oxidative burst mediated by toll like receptors (TLR) and CD14 on avian heterophils stimulated with bacterial toll agonists. Developmental and Comparative Immunology 27: 423-429.Google Scholar
FARNELL, M.B., HE, H.Q., GENOVESE, K. and KOGUT, M.H. (2003b) Pharmacological analysis of signal transduction pathways required for oxidative burst in chicken heterophils stimulated by a Toll-like receptor 2 agonist. International Immunopharmacology 3: 1677-1684.Google Scholar
FERNIE-KING, B.A., SEILLY, D.J., DAVIES, A. and LACHMANN, P.J. (2002) Streptococcal Inhibitor of Complement Inhibits Two Additional Components of the Mucosal Innate Immune System: Secretory Leukocyte Proteinase Inhibitor and Lysozyme Infection and Immunity 70: 4908-4916.Google Scholar
FOWLES, J.R., FAIRBROTHER, A., TRUST, K.A. and KERKVLIET, N.I. (1997) Effects of Aroclor 1254 on the thyroid gland gland, immune function, and hepatic cytochrome P450 activity in mallards. Environmental Research 75: 119-129.Google Scholar
FRIEDMAN, A., BARTOV, I. and SKLAN, D. (1998) Humoral immune response impairment following excess vitamin E nutrition in the chick and turkey. Poultry Science 77: 956-962.Google Scholar
FRITSCHE, K.L. and CASSITY, N.A. (1992) Dietary n-3 fatty acids reduce antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity and alter eicosanoid release by chicken immune cells. Poultry Science 71: 1646-1657.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
FRITSCHE, K.L., CASSITY, N.A. and HUANG, S.C. (1991) Effect of dietary fat source on antibody production and lymphocyte proliferation in chickens. Poultry Science 70: 611-617.Google Scholar
FRITTS, C.A., ERF, G.F., BERSI, T.K. and WALDROUP, P.W. (2004) Effect of source and level of vitamin D on immune function in growing broilers. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 13: 263-273.Google Scholar
GOGAL, R.M., AHMAD, S.A. and LARSEN, C.T. (1997) Analysis of avian lymphoproliferation by a new, simple, nonradioctive assay(Lympho-pro). Avian Diseases 41: 714-725.Google Scholar
GOLDSBY, R.A., KINDT, T., OSBORNE, B. and KUBY, J. (2003) Immunology, 5th edition, New York, W.H. Freeman.Google Scholar
GRASMAN, K.A. (2002) Assessing immunological function in toxicological studies of avian wildlife. Integrative and Comparative Biology 42: 34-42.Google Scholar
GRASMAN, K.A. and FOX, G.A. (2001) Associations between altered immune function and organochlorine contamination in young Caspian terns (Sterna caspia) from Lake Huron, 1997-1999. Ecotoxicology 10: 101-114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
GUO, F.C., KWAKKEL, R.P., WILLIAMS, B.A., PARMENTIER, H.K., LI, W.K., YANG, Z.Q. and VERSTEGEN, M.W.A. (2004) Effects of mushroom and herb polysaccharides on cellular and humoral immune responses of Eimeria tenella-infected chickens. Poultry Science 83: 1124-1132.Google Scholar
HANGALAPURA, B.N., NIEUWLAND, M.G., DE VRIES REILINGH, G., HEETKAMP, M.J., VAN DEN BRAND, H., KEMP, B. and PARMENTIER, H.K. (2003) Effects of cold stress on immune responses and body weight of chicken lines divergently selected for antibody responses to sheep red blood cells. Poultry Science 82: 1692-1700.Google Scholar
HARMON, B.G. (1998) Avian heterophils in inflammation and disease resistance. Poultry Science 77: 972-977.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
HODGKIN, P.D., CHIN, S.H., BARTELL, G., MAMCHAK, A., DOHERTY, K., LYONS, A.B. and HASBOLD, J. (1997) The importance of efficacy and partial agonism in evaluating models of B lymphocyte activation. International Reviews of Immunology 15: 101.Google Scholar
HUANG, R., DENG, Z., YANG, C., YIN, Y., XIE, M., WU, G., LI, T., LI, L., TANG, Z., KANG, P., HOU, Z., DENG, D., XIANG, H., KONG, X. and GUO, Y. (2007) Dietary oligochitosan supplementation enhances immune status of broilers. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture87: 153-159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
HUDSON, B.P., DOZIER III, W.A., WILSON, J.L., SANDER, J.E. and WARD, T.L. (2004) Reproductive performance and immune status of caged broiler breeder hens provided diets supplemented with either inorganic or organic sources of zinc from hatching to 65 wk of age. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 13: 349-359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
JANACZYK, B., PLISZCZAK-KROL, A., GRACZYK, S., HOUSZKA, M. and ROUIBAH, K. (2006) Morphological and functional evaluation of chicken blood leukocytes in chronic ochratoxicosis. International Journal of Poultry Science 5: 191-194.Google Scholar
JOHNSEN, A., ANDERSEN, V., SUNDING, C. and LIFJELD, J.T. (2000) Female bluethroats enhance offspring imunocompetence through extra-pair copulations. Nature 406: 296-299.Google Scholar
KENNEDY, M.W. and NAGER, R.G. (2006) The perils and prospects of using phytohemagglutinin in evolutionary ecology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 21: 653-655.Google Scholar
KEW, S., BANERJEE, T., MINIHANE, A.M., FINNEGAN, Y.E., MUGGLI, R., ALBERS, R., WILLIAMS, C.M. and CALDER, P.C. (2003a) Lack of effect of foods enriched with plant or marine-derived n-3 fatty acids on human immune function. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77: 1287-95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KEW, S., BANERJEE, T., MINIHANE, A.M., FINNEGAN, Y.E., WILLIAMS, C.M. and CALDER, P.C. (2003b) Relation between the fatty acid composition of peripheral blood mononuclear cells and measures of immune cell function in healthy, free-living subjects aged 25-72 y. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77: 1278-1286.Google Scholar
KLIGER, C.A., GEHAD, A.E., HULET, R.M., ROUSH, W.B., LILLEHOJ, H.S. and MASHALY, M.M. (2000) Effects of photoperiod and melatonin on lymphocyte activities in male broiler chickens. Poultry Science 79: 18-25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KOGUT, M.H., GENOVESE, K.J. and LOWRY, V.K. (2001) Differential activation of signal transduction pathways mediating phagocytosis, oxidative burst, and degranulation by chicken heterophils in response to stimulation with opsonised Salmonella enteritidis. Inflammation 25: 7-15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KONDO, Y., GOTO, C. and ABE, A. (2004) Effects of estrogen treatment during the embryogenic period on chick antibody production. Journal of Poultry Science 41: 85-93.Google Scholar
KORVER, D.R. and KLASING, K.C. (1997) Dietary fish oil alters specific and inflammatory immune responses in chicks. Journal of Nutrition 127: 2039-2046.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KROMER, G., SCHAUENSTEIN, K. and WICK, G. (1984) Avian lymphokines: an improved method for chicken IL-2 production and assay. A con A-erythrocyte complex induces higher T cell proliferation and IL-2 production than does free mitogen. Journal of Immunological Methods 73: 273-281.Google Scholar
LEE, L.F. (1978) Chicken lymphocyte stimulation by mitogens: a microassay with whole-blood cultures. Avian Diseases 22: 296-307.Google Scholar
LUSTER, M.I., PORTIER, C., PAIT, D.G., WHITE, K.L., GENNINGS, C., MUNSON, A.M. and ROSENTHAL, G.J. (1992) Risk assessment in immunotoxicity.I. Sensitivity and predictability of immune tests. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology 18: 200-210.Google Scholar
LYDYARD, P.M., WHELAN, A. and FANGER, M.W. (2000) Instant notes in immunology, Oxford, BIOS.Google Scholar
LYONS, A.B. (2000) Analysing cell division in vivo and in vitro using flow cytometric measurement of CFSE dye dilution. Journal of Immunological Methods 243: 147-154.Google Scholar
LYONS, A.B. and PARISH, C.R. (1994) Determination of lymphocyte division by flow cytometry. Journal of Immunological Methods 171: 131-137.Google Scholar
MACCUBBIN, D.L. and SCHIERMAN, L.W. (1986) MHC-restricted cytotoxic response of chicken T cells: expression, augmentation, and clonal characterisation. Journal of Immunology 136: 12-16.Google Scholar
MARTIN, L.B., HAN, P., LEWITTES, J., KUHLMAN, J.R., KLASING, K.C. and WIKELSKI, M. (2006) Phytohemagglutinin-induced skin swelling in birds: histological support for a classical immunoecological technique. Functional Ecology 20: 290-299.Google Scholar
MARTINEZ-PADILLA, J. (2006) Daytime variation in T-cell-mediated immunity of Eurasian kestrel Falco tinnunculus nestlings. Journal of Avian Biology 37: 419-424.Google Scholar
MASHALY, M.M., HENDRICKS III, G.L., KALAMA, M.A., GEHAD, A.E., ABBAS, A.O. and PATTERSON, P.H. (2004) Effect of heat stress on production parameters and immune responses of commercial laying hens. Poultry Science 83: 889-894.Google Scholar
MATSON, K.D., TIELEMAN, B.I. and KLASING, K.C. (2006) Capture stress and the bactericidal competence of blood and plasma in five species of tropical birds. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 79: 556-564.Google Scholar
MEYDANI, S.N., ENDRES, S., WOODS, M.M., GOLDIN, B.R., SOO, C., MORRILL-LABRODE, A., DINARELLO, C.A. and GORBACH, S.L. (1991) Oral (n-3) Fatty Acid Supplementation Suppresses Cytokine Production and Lymphocyte Proliferation: Comparison between Young and Older Women. Journal of Nutrition 121: 547-555.Google Scholar
MOORE, C.B. and SIOPES, T.D. (2002) Effect of melatonin supplementation on the ontogeny of immunity in the large white turkey poult. Poultry Science 81: 1898-1903.Google Scholar
MUHAMMAD, S., HAMAYUN, K., SAJID UR, R. and MUHAMMAD, A. (2006) Humoral immune response to Newcastle disease vaccine (Lastoa strain) in broilers. International Journal of Poultry Science 5: 411-414.Google Scholar
NORDAHL, E.A., RYDENGARD, V., NYBERG, P., NITSCHE, D.P., MORGELIN, M., MALMSTEN, M. and BJORCK, L. (2004) Activation of the complement system generates antibacterial peptides. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the USA 101: 16879-16884.Google Scholar
NOVAK, C. and SCHEIDELER, S.E. (2001) Long-term effects of feeding flaxseed-based diets. 1. Egg production parameters, components, and eggshell quality in two strains of laying hens. Poultry Science 80: 1480-1489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'LEARY, J.G., GOODARZI, M., DRAYTON, D.L. and VON ANDRIAN, U.H. (2006) T cell- and B cell-independent adaptive immunity mediated by natural killer cells. Nature Immunology 7: 507-516.Google Scholar
PARMENTIER, H.K., NIEUWLAND, M.G.B., BARWEGEN, M.W., KWAKKEL, R.P. and SCHRAMA, J.W. (1997) Dietary unsaturated fatty acids affect antibody responses and growth of chickens divergently selected for humoral responses to sheep red blood cells. Poultry Science 76: 1164-1171.Google Scholar
POLI, G., ZANELLA, A., DALL'ARA, P. and BONIZZI, L. (2000) Avian immunology: the old and the new. [Italian]. Selezione Veterinaria 8/9: 535-560.Google Scholar
PRAHARAJ, N.K., DUNNINGTON, E.A., GROSS, W.B. and SIEGEL, P.B. (1997) Dietary effects on immune response of fast-growing chicks to inoculation of sheep erythrocytes and Escherichia coli. Poultry Science 76: 244-247.Google Scholar
PUTHPONGSIRIPORN, U. and SCHEIDELER, S.E. (2005) Effects of dietary ratio of linoleic to linolenic acid on performance, antibody production, and in vitro lymphocyte proliferation in two strains of Leghorn pullet chicks. Poultry Science 84: 846-857.Google Scholar
QURESHI, M.A. (2003) Avian macrophage and immune response: an overview. Poultry Science 82: 691-698.Google Scholar
QURESHI, M.A., PETITTE, J.N., LASTER, S.M. and DIETERT, R.R. (1993) Avian macrophages: contribution to cellular microenvironment and changes in effector functions following activation. Poultry Science 72: 1280-1284.Google Scholar
REID, M., ARCESE, P. and KELLER, L.F. (2003) Inbreeding depresses immune response in song sparrows (Melospiza melodia): direct and inter-generational effects. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 270: 2151-2157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ROCKSEN, D., EKSTRAND-HAMMARSTROM, B., JOHANSSON, L. and BUCHT, A. (2003) Vitamin E reduces transendothelial migration of neutrophils and prevents lung injury in endotoxin-induced airway inflammation. American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology 28: 199-207.Google Scholar
SALGAR, S.K., PAAPE, M.J., ALSTON-MILLS, B. and MILLER, R.H. (1991) Flow cytometric study of oxidative burst activity in bovine neutrophils. American Journal of Veterinary Research 52: 1201-1207.Google Scholar
SCHRANK, C.S., COOK, M.E. and HANSEN, W.R. (1990) Immune response of mallard ducks treated with immunosuppressive agents: antibody response to erythrocytes and in vivo response to phytohemagglutinin-P. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 26: 307-315.Google Scholar
SIJBEN, J.W., NIEUWLAND, M.G., KEMP, B., PARMENTIER, H.K. and SCHRAMA, J.W. (2001a) Interactions and antigen dependence of dietary n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids on antibody responsiveness in growing layer hens. Poultry Science 80: 885-893.Google Scholar
SIJBEN, J.W.C., GROOT, H.D., NIEUWLAND, M.G.B., SCHRAMA, J.W. and PARMENTIER, H.K. (2000a) Dietary linoleic acid divergently affects immune responsiveness of growing layer hens. Poultry Science 79: 1106-1115.Google Scholar
SIJBEN, J.W.C., SCHRAMA, J.W., NIEUWLAND, M.G.B. and PARMENTIER, H.K. (2000b) Immunomodulatory effects of indomethacin and prostaglandin E2 on primary and secondary antibody response in growing layer hens. Poultry Science 79: 949-955.Google Scholar
SIJBEN, J.W.C., SCHRAMA, J.W., PARMENTIER, H.K., VAN DER POEL, J. J. and KLASING, K.C. (2001b) Effects of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids on in vivo splenic cytokine mRNA expression in layer chicks immunised with Salmonella typhimurium lipopolysaccharide. Poultry Science 80: 1164-1170.Google Scholar
SMITH, K.G. and HUNT, J.L. (2004) On the use of spleen mass as a measure of avian immune system. Oecologia 138: 28-31.Google Scholar
SMITS, J.E., BORTOLOTTI, G.R. and TELLA, J.L. (1999) Simplifying the phytohaemagglutinin skin-testing technique in studies of avian immunocompetence. Functional Ecology 13: 567-572.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SWAMY, H.V.L.N., SMITH, T.K., KARROW, N.A. and BOERMANS, H.J. (2004) Effects of feeding blends of grains naturally contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins on growth and immunological parameters of broiler chickens. Poultry Science 83: 533-543.Google Scholar
TAKAHASHI, K., KAWAMATA, K., AKIBA, Y. and OKADA, T. (2002) Effect of dietary sorbitol on growth performance and plasma acute phase protein concentration in male broiler chickens during immunological stimulation. Journal of Poultry Science 39: 84-90.Google Scholar
TAKAHASHI, K., ONODERA, K. and AKIBA, Y. (1999) Effect of dietary xylitol on growth and inflammatory responses in immune stimulated chickens. British Poultry Science 40: 552-554.Google Scholar
THIES, F., MILES, E.A., NEBE-VON-CARON, G., POWELL, J.R., HURST, T.L., NEWSHOLME, E.A. and CALDER, P.C. (2001) Influence of dietary supplementation with long chain n-3 or n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood inflammatory cell populations and functions and on plasma soluble adhesion molecules in healthy adults. Lipids 36: 1183-93.Google Scholar
TRICON, S., BURDGE, G.C., KEW, S., BANERJEE, T., RUSSELL, J.J., GRIMBLE, R.F., WILLIAMS, C.M., CALDER, P.C. and YAQOOB, P. (2004) Effects of cis-9, trans-11 and trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid on immune cell function in healthy humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 80: 1626-33.Google Scholar
TRUST, K.A., FAIRBROTHER, A. and HOOPER, M.J. (1994) Effects of 7,12-dimethylbenz (a) anthracene on immune function and mixed function oxygenase activity in the European starling. Environmental Toxicology and Chemestry 13: 821-830.Google Scholar
UCHIYAMA, R., MORITOMO, T., KAI, O., UWATOKO, K., INOUE, Y. and NAKANISHI, T. (2005) Counting absolute number of lymphocytes in quail whole blood by flow cytometry. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 67: 441-444.Google Scholar
VELHNER, M., KAPETANOV, R., KAPETANOV, M., MITEVSKI, D. and ORLIC, D. (2001) Infection of commercial chickens with very virulent infectious bursal disease virus and humoral immune response after vaccination against Newcastle disease virus. [Serbian]. Veterinarski Glasnik 55: 259-263.Google Scholar
VERHULST, S., RIEDSTRA, B. and WIERSMA, P. (2005) Brood size and immunity cost in zebra finches Taeniopygia guttata Journal of Avian Biology 36: 22-30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WALRAND, S., MOREAU, K., CALDEFIE, F., TRIDON, A., CHASSAGNE, J., PORTEFAIX, G., CYNOBER, L., BEAUFRERE, B., VASSON, M.P. and BOIRIE, Y. (2001) Specific and nonspecific immune responses to fasting and refeeding differ in healthy young adult and elderly persons. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition74: 670-678.Google Scholar
WANG, Y.W., AJUYAH, A.O., SUNWOO, H.H., CHERIAN, G. and SIM, J.S. (2002) Maternal dietary n-3 fatty acids alter the spleen fatty acid composition and bovine serum albumin-induced wing web swelling in broilers. Poultry Science 81: 1722-1727.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
WANG, Y.W., FIELD, C.J. and SIM, J.S. (2000) Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids alter lymphocyte subset proportion and proliferation, serum immunoglobulin G concentration, and immune tissue development in chicks. Poultry Science 79: 1741-1748.Google Scholar
WATSON, J.V. (2004) Introduction to flow cytometry, first paperback edition, Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University press.Google Scholar
WOOD, P. (2001) Understanding immunology, Harlow, Pearson.Google Scholar
YANG, X. and YUMING, G. (2006) Modulation of intestinal mucosal immunity by dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids in chickens. Food and Agricultural Immunology 17: 129-137.Google Scholar
ZHENG, Q., YE, X., BAI, J., WU, R., LAO, H. and LUO, J. (2005) Expression of Penaeus monodon lysozyme gene in prokaryocyte system and evaluation of its lytic activity. [Chinese]. Journal of Fisheries of China 29: 20-24.Google Scholar