Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-mlc7c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T22:14:31.220Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Implications of dietary macronutrients for growth and metabolism in broiler chickens

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 February 2008

Q. SWENNEN ,
E. DECUYPERE  and
J. BUYSE
Q. SWENNEN
Affiliation:
Department of Biosystems, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 30, B-3001 Heverlee, Belgium
E. DECUYPERE
Affiliation:
Department of Biosystems, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 30, B-3001 Heverlee, Belgium
J. BUYSE*
Affiliation:
Department of Biosystems, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 30, B-3001 Heverlee, Belgium
*
*Corresponding author: johan.buyse@biw.kuleuven.be
Get access

Abstract

In chickens, metabolism is influenced by environmental factors and of particular interest nutritional factors, such as diet quantity and composition. With respect to the dietary macronutrients, literature clearly shows that in isoenergetically formulated diets, the protein level has a pronounced effect on metabolism, whereas fat and carbohydrate concentrations play a limited role. A decreased dietary protein level results in depressed growth rates, with reduced carcass gains in both water and protein content. In spite of the lower protein retention in chickens fed low protein diets, the efficiency of utilization of dietary protein appears to be increased. This indicates an inverse relationship between protein intake and utilization, which is reflected in decreased circulating uric acid levels. In addition, feed intake is increased, at least when protein levels are slightly reduced, leading to an involuntary overconsumption of energy compared to protein. The chickens deal with this excess energy consumption by increasing de novo lipogenesis and fat deposition, which is supported by increased plasma triglyceride concentrations, and heat production is increased. In contrast to adult mammals, the dietary macronutrients have no effect on diet-induced thermogenesis, nor is there any relationship between diet-induced thermogenesis and feed intake. Plasma growth hormone levels are higher in chickens reared on a low protein diet, indicating a causal relationship between growth hormone secretion and protein efficiency. In spite of the increased growth hormone levels, plasma insulin-like growth factor concentrations are lowered in low protein reared chickens, and may be partially responsible for the reduced growth rate observed in these animals. Plasma corticosterone concentrations are augmented in chickens on low protein diets, despite a decline in the ACTH concentration. Finally, plasma T3 and T4 levels are well known to increase and decrease, respectively, with decreasing protein content, whereas the effects of dietary macronutrients on circulating leptin levels require more research.

Keywords

chickendietary macronutrientsenergy balanceendocrine functioningintermediary metabolism
Type
Review Article
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 63 , Issue 4 , December 2007 , pp. 541 - 556
Copyright
Copyright © World's Poultry Science Association 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

ALSTER, F.A. and CAREW, L.B. (1984) Energy balance and thyroid function in protein-deficient chicks. Nutrition Reports International 30: 1231–1240.Google Scholar
BARTOV, I. and BORNSTEIN, S. (1976) Effects of degree of fatness in broilers on other carcass characteristics: relationship between fatness and the composition of carcass fat. British Poultry Science 17: 17–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BELO, P.S., ROMSOS, D.R. and LEVEILLE, G.A. (1976) Blood metabolites and glucose metabolism in the fed and fasted chicken. The Journal of Nutrition 106: 1135–1143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BREGENDAHL, K., SELL, J.L. and ZIMMERMAN, D.R. (2002) Effect of low-protein diets on growth performance and body composition of broiler chicks. Poultry Science 81: 1156–1167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BORDAS, A. and MÉRAT, P. (1984) Correlated responses in a selection experiment on residual feed intake in Rhode Island Red laying hens. British Poultry Science 23: 233–237.Google Scholar
BORDAS, A., TIXIER-BOICHARD, M. and MÉRAT, P. (1992) Direct and correlated responses to divergent selection for residual food-intake in Rhode Island Red laying hens. British Poultry Science 33: 741–754.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BUYSE, J., DARRAS, V.M., VLEURICK, L., KÜHN, E.R. and DECUYPERE, E. (2001) Nutritional regulation of the somatotrophic axis and intermediary metabolism in the chicken. In: ‘Avian Endocrinology’, Dawson, A. and Chatervedi, C.M. (Eds.), Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, India, pp. 303–313.Google Scholar
BUYSE, J., DECUYPERE, E., BERGHMAN, L., KÜHN, E.R. and VANDESANDE, F. (1992) Effect of dietary protein content on episodic growth hormone secretion and on heat production of male broiler chickens. British Poultry Science 33: 1101–1109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BUYSE, J. and DECUYPERE, E. (1994) Factors controlling and influencing growth hormone pulsatility in broiler chickens. In: ‘Proceedings of the IXth European Poultry Conference’, Glasgow, Scotland, pp. 308–311.Google Scholar
BUYSE, J. and DECUYPERE, E. (1999) The role of the somatotrophic axis in the metabolism of the chicken. Domestic Animal Endocrinology 17: 245–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BUYSE, J., JANSSENS, K., VAN DER GEYTEN, S., VAN AS, P., DECUYPERE, E. and DARRAS, V.M. (2002) Pre- and postprandial changes in plasma hormone and metabolite levels and hepatic deiodinase activities in meal-fed broiler chickens. British Journal of Nutrition 88: 641–653.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BUYSE, J., LEENSTRA, F.R., ZEMAN, M., RAHIMI, G. and DECUYPERE, E. (1999) A comparative study of different selection strategies to breed leaner meat-type poultry. Avian and Poultry Biology Reviews 10: 121–142.Google Scholar
CAPERNA, T.J., ROSEBROUGH, R.W., MCMURTRY, J.P. and VASILATOS-YOUNKEN, R. (1999) Influence of dietary protein on insulin-like growth factor binding proteins in the chicken. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 124: 417–421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CAREW, L.B. and ALSTER, F.A. (1997) Dietary carbohydrate and fat do not alter the thyroid response to protein deficiency in chicks. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 215: 82–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CARSIA, R.V. and HARVEY, S. (2000) Adrenals. In: Sturkie's Avian Physiology, Whittow, G.C. (Ed.) 5th ed. Academic Press, San Diego, U.S. pp. 489–537.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CARSIA, R.V., WEBER, H. and LAUTERIO, T.J. (1988) Protein malnutrition in the domestic fowl induces alterations in adrenocortical function. Endocrinology 122: 673–680.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
COLLIN, A., MALHEIROS, R.D., MORAES, V.M.B., VAN AS, P., DARRAS, V.M., TAUOIS, M., DECUYPERE, E. and BUYSE, J. (2003) Effects of dietary macronutrient content on energy metabolism and uncoupling protein mRNA expression in broiler chickens. British Journal of Nutrition 90: 261–269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CROVETTI, R., PORRINI, M., SANTANGELO, A. and TESTOLIN, G. (1998) The influence of thermic effect of food on satiety. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52: 482–488.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DARRAS, V.M., RUDAS, P., VISSER, T.J., HALL, T.R., HUYBRECHTS, L.M., VANDERPOOTEN, A., BERGHMAN, L.R., DECUYPERE, E. and KUHN, E.R. (1993) Endogenous growth hormone controls high plasma levels of 3,3',5-triiodithyronine (T3) in growing chickens by decreasing the T3-degrading type III deiodinase activity. Domestic Animal Endocrinology 10: 55–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DECUYPERE, E. and BUYSE, J. (2005) Endocrine control of growth in poultry. The Journal of Poultry Science 42: 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DECUYPERE, E., LEENSTRA, F.R., BUYSE, J., BEUVING, G. and BERGHMAN, L. (1991) Temporal secretary patterns of growth hormone in male meat-type chickens of lines selected for body weight gain or food conversion. British Poultry Science 32: 1121–1128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DESCHEPPER, K. and DE GROOTE, G. (1995) Effect of dietary protein, essential and non-essential amino acids and carcass composition of male broiler chickens. British Poultry Science 36: 229–245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DONALDSON, W.E. (1985) Lipogenesis and body fat in chicks: Effects of calorie-protein ratio and dietary fat. Poultry Science 64: 1191–1204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
FANCHER, B.I. and JENSEN, L.S. (1989) Dietary protein level and essential amino acid content: influence upon female broiler performance during the growing period. Poultry Science 68: 897–908.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
GABARROU, J-F., GERAERT, P-A., PICARD, M. and BORDAS, A. (1997) Diet-induced thermogenesis in cockerels is modulated by genetic selection for high or low residual feed intake. The Journal of Nutrition 127: 2371–2376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
GERAERT, P-A., GUILLAUMIN, S., BORDAS, A. and MÉRAT, P. (1991) Evidence of a genetic control of diet-induced thermogenesis in poultry. In ‘Proceedings of the 12th symposium on energy metabolism of farm animals’, European Association for Animal Production 58: 380–383.Google Scholar
HERMIER, D. (1997) Lipoprotein metabolism and fattening in poultry. The Journal of Nutrition 127: 805S–808S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
JACKSON, S., SUMMERS, J.D. and LEESON, S. (1982) Effect of dietary protein and energy on broiler carcass composition and efficiency of nutrient utilization. Poultry Science 61: 2224–2231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
JOHNSTONE, A.M., HARBRON, C.G. and STUBBS, R.J. (1996) Macronutrients, appetite and day-to-day food intake in humans. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 50: 418–430.Google Scholar
JONES, R.L. (1986) Nutritional influences on carcass composition in the broiler chicken. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 45: 27–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KEAGY, E.M., CAREW, L.B., ALSTER, F.A. and TYZBIR, R.S. (1987) Thyroid function, energy balance, body composition and organ growth in protein-deficient chicks. The Journal of Nutrition 117: 1532–1540.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KITA, K., MATSUNAMI, S. and OKUMURA, J. (1996a) Relationship of protein synthesis to mRNA levels in the muscle of chicks under various nutritional conditions. The Journal of Nutrition 126: 1827–1832.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KITA, K., MURAMATSU, T. and OKUMURA, J. (1993) Effect of dietary protein and energy intakes on whole-body protein turnover and its contribution to heat production in chicks. British Journal of Nutrition 69: 681–688.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KITA, K., MURAMATSU, T. and OKUMURA, J. (1989a) Influence of excess protein intake on whole-body protein synthesis in chicks. Nutrition Reports International 39: 1091–1097.Google Scholar
KITA, K., MURAMATSU, T., TASAKI, I. and OKUMURA, J. (1989b) Influence of dietary non-protein energy intake on whole-body protein turnover in chicks. British Journal of Nutrition 61: 235–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KITA, K., TOMAS, F.M., OWENS, P.C., KNOWLES, S.E., FORBES, B.E., UPTON, Z., HIGHES, R. and BALLARD, F.J. (1996b) Influence of nutrition on hepatic IGF-I mRNA levels and plasma concentrations of IGF-I and IGF-II in meat type chickens. Journal of Endocrinology 149: 181–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LAURIN, D.E., TOUCHBURN, S.P., CHAVEZ, E.R. and CHAN, C.W. (1985) Effect of dietary fat supplementation on the carcass composition of three genetic lines of broilers. Poultry Science 64: 2131–2135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LAUTERIO, T.J. and SCANES, C.G. (1988) Effect of age and protein restriction on the clearance and secretion of growth hormone in the domestic fowl. Poultry Science 67: 120–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LECLERCQ, B., BLUM, J.C. and BOYER, J.P. (1980) Selecting broilers for low or high abdominal fat: initial observations. British Poultry Science 21: 107–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LEILI, S. and SCANES, C.G. (1998) The effects of protein restriction on insulin-like growth factor-I and IGFbinding proteins in chickens. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 218: 322–328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LEVEILLE, G.A., ROMSOS, D.R., YEH, Y.Y. and O'HEA, E.K. (1975) Lipid biosynthesis in the chick. A consideration of site of synthesis, influence of diet and possible regulatory mechanisms. Poultry Science 54: 1075–1093.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MADAPPALLY, M.M., PAQUET, R.J., MEHLMAN, M.A. and TOBIN, R.B. (1971) Gluconeogenic and lipogenic enzyme activities in growing chicks fed high fat and high carbohydrate diets. The Journal of Nutrition 101: 755–760.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MACLEOD, M.G. (1990) Energy and nitrogen intake, expenditure and retention at 20 degrees in growing fowl given diets with a wide range of energy and protein contents. British Journal of Nutrition 64: 625–637.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MACLEOD, M.G. (1992) Energy and nitrogen intake, expenditure and retention at 32 degrees in growing fowl given diets with a wide range of energy and protein contents. British Journal of Nutrition 67: 195–206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MALHEIROS, R.D., MORAES, V.M.B., COLLIN, A., DECUYPERE, E. and BUYSE, J. (2003a) Free diet selection by broilers as influenced by dietary macronutrient ratio and corticosterone supplementation. 1. Diet selection, organ weights and plasma metabolites. Poultry Science 82: 123–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MALHEIROS, R.D., MORAES, V.M.B., COLLIN, A., JANSSENS, G.P.J., DECUYPERE, E. and BUYSE, J. (2003b) Dietary macronutrients, endocrine functioning and intermediary metabolism of broiler chickens. Fat by carbohydrate substitution. Archiv für Geflügelkunde 68: 87–93.Google Scholar
MALHEIROS, R.D., MORAES, V.M.B., COLLIN, A., JANSSENS, G.P.J., DECUYPERE, E. and BUYSE, J. (2003c) Dietary macronutrients, endocrine functioning and intermediary metabolism in broiler chickens: pairwise substitutions between protein, fat and carbohydrate. Nutrition Research 23: 567–578.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MCMURTRY, J.P., ROSEBROUGH, R.W., BROCHT, D.M., FRANCIS, G.L., UPTON, Z. and PHELPS, P. (1998) Assessment of developmental changes in chicken and turkey insulin-like growth factor-II by homologous radioimmunoassay. Journal of Endocrinology 157: 465–473.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MORRIS, T.R., GOUS, R.M. and FISHER, C. (1999) An analysis of the hypothesis that amino acid requirements for chicks should be stated as a proportion of dietary protein. World's Poultry Science Journal 55: 7–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MURAMATSU, T., KITA, K., TASAKI, I. and OKUMURA, J. (1988) Whole-body protein synthesis in chicks with special reference to dietary protein requirement. Japanese Journal of Zootechnical Science 59: 568–571.Google Scholar
MURAMATSU, T., SALTER, D.N. and COATES, M.E. (1985) Protein turnover of breast muscle in germ-free and conventional chicks. British Journal of Nutrition 54: 131–145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
NIETO, R., AGUILERA, J.F., FERNANDEZ-FIGARES, I. and PRIETO, C. (1997) Effect of a low protein diet on the energy metabolism of growing chickens. Archiv für Tierernahrung 50: 105–119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
NOY, Y. and SKLAN, D. (2002) Nutrient use in chicks during the first week posthatch. Poultry Science 81: 391–399.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'HEA, E.K. and LEVEILLE, G.A. (1968) Lipogenesis in isolated adipose tissue of the domestic chicks (Gallus domesticus). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 26: 111–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
OKUMURA, J. and KITA, K. (2000) Nutritional regulation of whole-body and muscle protein synthesis rate in the chicken. Asian-Australian Journal of Animal Science 2000: 66–75.Google Scholar
ORR, J. and DAVY, B. (2005) Dietary influences on peripheral hormones regulating energy intake: potential applications for weight management. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 105: 1115–1124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
PARSONS, C.M. and BAKER, D.H. (1982) Effect of dietary protein level and monensin on performance of chicks. Poultry Science 61: 891–897.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
PESTI, G.M. and FLETCHER, D.L. (1984) The response of male broiler chickens to diets with various protein contents during the growing and finisher phases. British Poultry Science 25: 415–423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
POPPITT, S.D., MCCORMACK, D. and BUFFENSTEIN, R. (1998) Short-term effects of macronutrient preloads on appetite and energy intake in lean women. Physiology and Behaviour 64: 279–285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
RAHEJA, K.K., SNEDECOR, J.G. and FREEDLAND, R.A. (1971) Activities of some enzymes involved in lipogenesis, gluconeogenesis, glycolysis and glycogen metabolism in chicks from hatch to adulthood. Comparative Biochemistry and Biophysics B 39: 327–349.Google ScholarPubMed
RIESENFELD, G.A., GEVA, A. and HURWITZ, S. (1982) Glucose homeostasis in the chicken. The Journal of Nutrition 112: 2261–2266.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ROSEBROUGH, R.W. and MCMURTRY, J. (1993) Protein and energy relationships in the broiler chicken. 11. Effects of protein quantity and quality on metabolism. British Journal of Nutrition 70: 667–678.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ROSEBROUGH, R.W., MCMURTRY, J.P. and STEELE, N. (1987) Energy and protein relations in the broiler. 5. Lipogenesis, glucose production and metabolic hormone levels as functions of age and dietary protein levels. Growth 51: 309–320.Google ScholarPubMed
ROSEBROUGH, R.W., MCMURTRY, J. and STEELE, N. (1989) Protein and energy relations in the broiler chicken. 7. Chronic or acute effects of alternating protein or intermittent feeding regimens on broiler lipid metabolism. British Journal of Nutrition 61: 223–230.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ROSEBROUGH, R.W., MCMURTRY, J. and VASILATOS-YOUNKEN, R. (1999) Dietary fat and protein interactions in the broiler. Poultry Science 78: 992–998.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ROSEBROUGH, R.W., MITCHELL, A.D. and MCMURTRY, J.P. (1996) Dietary crude protein changes rapidly alter metabolism and plasma insulin-like growth factor I concentrations in broiler chickens. The Journal of Nutrition 126: 2888–2898.Google ScholarPubMed
ROSEBROUGH, R.W., POCH, S.M., RUSSELL, B.A. and RICHARDS, M.P. (2002) Dietary protein regulates in vitro lipogenesis and lipogenic gene expression in broilers. Comparative Biochemistry Physiology A 132: 423–431.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ROSEBROUGH, R.W., RICHARDS, M.P. and MCMURTRY, J.P. (2004) Further studies on dietary protein reversals and lipid metabolism in the broiler. Growth, Development and Aging 68: 19–32.Google ScholarPubMed
ROSEBROUGH, R.W. and STEELE, N.C. (1985) Energy and protein relationships in the broiler. 1. Effect of protein levels and feeding regimens on growth, body composition and in vitro lipogenesis of broiler chickens. Poultry Science 64: 119–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
RUSBY, A.A. and FORBES, J.M. (1987) Effects of infusions of lysine, leucine and ammonium chloride into the hepatic portal vein of chickens on voluntary food intake. British Journal of Nutrition 58: 325–331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SATO, K., NISHIDA, M. and AKIBA, Y. (2003) Nutritional modulation of leptin messenger RNA in broiler chickens. Japanese Poultry Science 40: 13–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SATO, K., NISHIDA, M., TAKAHASHI, Y. and AKIBA, Y. (2000) Nutritional regulation of leptin expression in adipose tissues of broiler chickens. In ‘Proceedings of the XXI World's Poultry Congress’, Montreal, Canada, pp. 27.Google Scholar
SATO, K., TAKAHASHI, T., TAKAHASHI, Y., SHIONO, H., KATOH, N. and AKIBA, Y. (1999) Preparation of chylomicron and VLDL with monoacid-rich triacylglycerol and characterization of kinetic parameters in lipoprotein lipase mediated hydrolysis in chickens. The Journal of Nutrition 129: 126–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SCANES, C.G. and GRIMINGER, P. (1990) Endocrine-Nutrition interactions in birds. Journal of Experimental Zoology 4: 98–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SCANES, C.G., GRIMINGER, P. and BUONOMO, F.C. (1981) Effects of dietary protein restriction on circulating concentrations of growth hormone in growing domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus). Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 168: 334–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SHURLOCK, T.G. and FORBES, J.M. (1984) Effects on voluntary food intake of infusions of glucose and amino acids into the hepatic portal vein of chickens. British Poultry Science 25: 303–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SIMON, J. (1989) Chickens as a useful species for the comprehension of insulin action. CSC Critical reviews in Poultry Biology 2: 121–148.Google Scholar
SKLAN, D. and PLAVNIK, I. (2002) Interactions between dietary crude protein and essential amino acid intake on performance in broilers. British Poultry Science 43: 442–449.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SMITH, E.R. and PESTI, G.M. (1998) Influence of broiler strain cross and dietary protein on the performance of broilers. Poultry Science 77: 276–281.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
STEWART, P.A. and WASHBURN, K.W. (1984) Hormone and lipogenic enzyme response of the heterozygous dw chick to dietary protein level. The Journal of Nutrition 114: 132–143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
STUBBS, R.J. (1995) Macronutrient effects on appetite. International Journal of Obesity 19: S11–S19.Google ScholarPubMed
STUBBS, R.J., PRENTICE, A.M. and JAMES, W.P.T. (1997) Carbohydrates and energy balance. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 819: 44–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
STURKIE, P.D. (2000) Avian Physiology, fifth edition, Whittow, G.C. (Ed.) Academic Press, New York, U.S.Google Scholar
SUMMERS, J.D., SLINGERS, S.J., SIBBALD, I.R. and PEPPER, W.F. (1964) Influence of protein and energy on growth and protein utilisation in the growing chicken. The Journal of Nutrition 82: 463–468.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SUTHAMA, N., HAYASHI, K., TOYOMIZU, M. and TOMITA, Y. (1991) Interactions of exogenous thyroxine and dietary protein levels on growth and muscle protein metabolism in broiler chickens. Japanese Poultry Science 28: 1–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SWENNEN, Q., JANSSENS, G.P.J., COLLIN, A., LE BIHAN-DUVAL, E., VERBEKE, K., DECUYPERE, E. and BUYSE, J. (2006) Diet-Induced Thermogenesis and Glucose Oxidation in Broiler Chickens: Influence of Genotype and Diet Composition. Poultry Science 85: 731–742.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SWENNEN, Q., JANSSENS, G.P.J., DECUYPERE, E. and BUYSE, J. (2004) Effects of substitution between fat and protein on feed intake and its regulatory mechanisms in broiler chickens: energy and protein metabolism and diet-induced thermogenesis. Poultry Science 83: 1997–2004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SWENNEN, Q., JANSSENS, G.P.J., MILLET, S., VANSANT, G., DECUYPERE, E. and BUYSE, J. (2005) Effects of substitution between fat and protein on food intake and its regulatory mechanisms in broiler chickens: Endocrine functioning and intermediary metabolism. Poultry Science 84: 1051–1057.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SWENNEN, Q., LAROYE, C., JANSSENS, G.P.J., VERBEKE, K., DECUYPERE, E. and BUYSE, J. (2007) Rate of metabolic decarboxylation of leucine as assessed by a L‘1−13C1’leucine breath test combined with indirect calorimetry of broiler chickens fed isocaloric diets with different protein: fat ratio. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 91 (7–8): 347–354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
TANAKA, K., OHTANI, S. and SHIGENO, K. (1983a) Effect of increasing dietary energy on hepatic lipogenesis in growing chickens. I. Increasing energy by carbohydrate supplementation. Poultry Science 62: 445–451.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
TANAKA, K., OHTANI, S. and SHIGENO, K. (1983b) Effect of increasing dietary energy on hepatic lipogenesis in growing chickens. II. Increasing energy by fat or protein supplementation. Poultry Science 62: 452–458.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
TAOUIS, M., DRIDI, S., CASSY, S., BENOMAR, U., RAVER, N., RIDEAU, N., PICARD, M., WILLIAMS, J. and GERTLER, A. (2001) Chicken leptin, properties and actions. Domestic Animal Endocrinology 21: 319–327.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
TESSERAUD, S., PYM, R.A.E., LE BIHAN-DUVAL, E. and DUCLOS, M.J. (2003) Response of broilers selected on carcass quality to dietary protein supply: live performance, muscle development and circulating insulin-like growth factors (IGF-I and –II). Poultry Science 82: 1011–1016.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
TOBIN, G. and BOORMAN, K.N. (1979) Carotid or jugular amino acid infusions and food intake in the cockerel. British Journal of Nutrition 41: 157–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
WESTERTERP-PLATENGA, M.S., ROLLAND, V., WILSON, S.A.J. and WESTERTERP, K.R. (1999a) Satiety related to 24 h diet-induced thermogenesis during high protein/carbohydrate vs. high fat diets measured in a respiration chamber. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 53: 495–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WESTERTERP-PLATENGA, M.S., WESTERTERP, K.R., RUBBENS, M. and RICHALET, J-P. (1999b) Appetite at ‘high altitude’; operation Everest-Comex: a simulated ascent of the Mt. Everest. Journal of Applied Physiology 87: 391–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
YEH, Y.Y. and LEVEILLE, G.A. (1969) Effect of dietary protein on hepatic lipogenesis in the growing chick. The Journal of Nutrition 98: 356–366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed