Hostname: page-component-6bf8c574d5-mggfc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-22T14:42:37.492Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The tonic immobility reaction of the domestic fowl: a review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2007

R. Bryan Jones
R. Bryan Jones
Affiliation:
Agricultural and Food Research Council's Poultry Research Centre, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9PS, Scotland
Get access

Abstract

An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Research Article
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 42 , Issue 1 , February 1986 , pp. 82 - 96
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1986

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Banks, E. M., Wood-Gush, D. G. M., Hughes, B. O. and Mankovich, N. J. (1979). Sociat rank and priority of access to resources in domestic fowl. Behavioural Processes 4: 197–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benoff, F. H. and Siegel, P. B. (1976). Genetic analysis of tonic immobility in young Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Animal Learning and Behaviour 4: 160–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berns, P. V. and Bell, L. M. (1979). Tonic immobility in chicks during presentations and withdrawals of an imprinting stimulus Animal Learning and Behaviour 7: 383–386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bessei, W. (1979). Genetische Aspekte der Laufaktivitat beim Huhn und der japanischen Wachtel. Aktuelle Arbeiten Zur Tiergemasser Tierhaltung, pp. 145–152. KTBL Schrift 240, Darmstadt.Google Scholar
Bessei, W., Jones, R. B. and Faure, J. M. (1983). Ease of capture by human beings of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) genetically selected for different activity levels. Archiv für Geflügelkunde 47: 134–137.Google Scholar
Beuving, G. and Vonder, G. M. A. (1978). Effects of stressing factors on corticosterone levels in the plasma of laying hens. General and Comparative Endocrinology 35: 153–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braud, W. G. and Ginsburg, H. J. (1973). Immobility reactions in domestic fowl (Gallus gallus) less than 7 days old: Resolution of a paradox. Animal Behaviour 21: 104–108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carli, G. (1974). Blood pressure and heart rate in the rabbit during animal hypnosis. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 37: 231–237.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chertok, L. (1968). Animalhypnosis. In Abnormal Behaviour in Animals, pp. 129–158. Ed by Fox, M. W., Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders Co.Google Scholar
Craig, J. V., Craig, T. P. and Dayton, A. D. (1983). Fearful behaviour by caged hens of two genetic stocks. Applied Animal Ethology 10: 263–273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Craig, J. V., Kujiyat, S. K. and Dayton, A. D. (1984). Tonic immobility responses of White Leghorn hens affected by induction techniques and genetic stock differences. Poultry Science 63: 1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crawford, F. T. (1977). Induction and duration of tonic immobility. The Psychological Record 27: 89–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duncan, I. J. H. and Filshie, J. H. (1980). The use of radiotelemetry devices to measure temperature and heart rate in domestic fowl. In: A Handbook on Biotelemetry and Radio Tracking pp. 579–588. Ed by Amlaner, C. J. and Macdonald, D. W. Oxford, Pergamon Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ettinger, R. H. and Thompson, R. W. (1978). The role of dopaminergic systems in the mediation of tonic immobility (animal hypnosis) in chickens. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 12: 301–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faure, J. M. (1975:). Études des liaisons entre comportement en open-field et émotivité chez le jeune poussin. Annales de Génetique et de Sélection Animale 7: 197–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faure, J. M. (1977). Relations entre l'activité en open-field et l'aptitude à la dominance chez le coq (Gallus gallus). Biology of Behaviour 2: 193–201.Google Scholar
Faure, J. M. (1981a). Bidirectional selection for open-field activity in young chicks. Behaviour Genetics 11: 135–144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faure, J. M. (1981b). Analyse génétique du comportement en open-field du jeune poussin (Gallus gallus domesticus). Faculté de Sciences de Toulouse. No. D'Ordre 1010. 345 pp.Google Scholar
Gagliardi, G. J., Gallup, G. G. Jr. and Boren, J. L. (1976). Effect of different pupil to eye size ratios on tonic immobility in chickens. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 8: 58–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1972). Mirror-image stimulation and tonic immobility in chickens. Psychonomic Science 28: 257–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1974a). Animal hypnosis: Factual status of a fictional concept Psychological Bulletin 81: 836–853.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1974b). Genetic influence on tonic immobility in chickens. Animal Learning and Behaviour 2: 145–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1977). Tonic immobility: the role of fear and predation. The Psychological Record 27: 41–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1979). Tonic immobility as a measure of fear in domestic fowl. Animal Behaviour 27: 316–317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr., Borgen, J. L., Suarez, S. D., Wallnau, L. B. and Gagliardi, G. J. (1980). Evidence for the integrity of central processing during tonic immobility. Physiology and Behaviour 25: 189–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gallup, G. G. Jr., Cummings, W. H. and Nash, R. F. (1972). The experimenter as an independent variable in studies of animal hypnosis in chickens (Gallus gallus). Animal Behaviour 20: 166–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gallup, G. G. Jr., Ledbetter, D. H. and Maser, J. D. (1976). Strain differences among chickens in tonic immobility: evidence for an emotionality component. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 90: 1075–1081.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gallup, G. G. Jr., Nash, R. F., Donegan, N. H. and McClure, M. K. (1971a). The immobility response: a predator-induced reaction in chickens. The Psychological Record 21: 513–519.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr., Nash, R. F., and Wagner, A. M. (1971b). The tonic immobility reactions in chickens: response characteristics and methodology. Behaviour Research Methods & Instrumentation 3: 237–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gentle, M. J., Jones, R. B. and Maguire, S. (1985). Telencephalic removal and tonic immobility in the domestic hen (Gallus domesticus). Behavioural Processes 10: 265–271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gentle, M. J., Wood-Gush, D. G. M. and Gordon, J. (1978). Behavioural effects of hyperstriatal ablation in Gallus domesticus. Behavioural Processes 3: 137–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibbs, M. E. and NG, K. T. (1984). Hormonal influence on the duration of short-term and intermediate stages of memory. Behavioural Brain Research 11: 109–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilman, T. T., Marcuse, F. L. and Moore, A. U. (1950). Animal hypnosis: a study of the induction of tonic immobility in chickens. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 43: 99–111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ginsburg, H. J. (1975). Defensive distance and immobility in young precocial birds (Gallus gallus). Developmental Psychology 8: 281–285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gray, P. H. and Howard, K. I. (1957). Specific recognition of humans in imprinted chicks. Perceptual & Motor Skills 7: 301–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gross, W. B. and Siegel, P. B. (1982). Socialization as a factor in resistance to infection, feed efficiency and response to antigen in chickens. American Journal of Veterinary Research 43: 2010–2012.Google ScholarPubMed
Guhl, A. M. (1958). The development of social organization in the domestic chick. Animal Behaviour 6: 92–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guhl, A. M. (1964). Psychophysiological interrelations in the social behaviour of chickens. Psychological Bulletin 61: 277–285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hennig, C. W. (1980). Biphasic effects of serotonin on tonic immobility in domestic fowl. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behaviour 12: 519–523.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hennig, C. W., Fazio, J. K., Hughes, C. A., Castaldi, W. R. and Spencer, B. D. (1984). Duration of tonic immobility in chickens as a function of alpha-adrenergic receptor stimulation and blockade. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behaviour 20: 731–738.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hicks, L. E. (1976). Effects of anticholinergics on the habituation of tonic immobility in chickens. Behavioural Biology 18: 199–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, B. O. (1980). Behaviour of the hen in different environments. Animal Regulation Studies 3: 65–71.Google Scholar
Hughes, B. O. and Black, A. J. (1974). The effect of environmental factors on activity, selected behaviour patterns and “fear” of fowls in cages and pens. British Poultry Science 15: 375–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, R. A. (1982). Anticholinergic drugs, blood-brain barrier and tonic immobility in chickens. Physiology and Behaviour 29: 67–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, R. B. (1977). Open field responses of domestic chicks in the presence or absence of familiar cues. Behavioural Processes 2: 315–323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, R. B. (1980a). Responses of male and female domestic chicks to a startling stimulus and the effects of a tranquilliser. Behavioural Processes 5: 161–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, R. B. (1980b). Reactions of male domestic chicks to two-dimensional eye-like shapes. Animal Behaviour 28: 212–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, R. B. (1982a). Tonic immobility in the domestic fowl: effects of social rank and the presence of other birds. IRCS Medical Science 10: 558–559.Google Scholar
Jones, R. B. (1982b). Effects of early environmental enrichment upon open-field behaviour and timidity in the domestic chick. Developmental Psychobiology 15: 105–111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, R. B. (1983). Fear responses in domestic chicks as a function of the social environment. Behavioural Processes 8: 309–325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, R. B. (1984a). Experimental novelty and tonic immobility in chickens (Gallus domesticus). Behavioural Processes 9: 255–260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, R. B. (1984b). Cage level and fear in the domestic fowl. In Proceedings of the International Congress on Applied Ethology in Farm Animals, Kiel, pp. 217–220. Ed by Unshelm, J., van Putten, G. and Zeeb, K. Darmstadt, KTBL.Google Scholar
Jones, R. B. (1985a). The assessment of fear in the domestic fowl. In Cognitive Aspects of Social Behaviour in the Domestic Fowl, Ed by Zayan, R. and Duncan, I. J. H. Amsterdam, Elsevier, in press.Google Scholar
Jones, R. B. (1985b). Social and environmental aspects of fear in the domestic fowl. In Cognitive Aspects of Social Behaviour in the Domestic Fowl, Ed by Zayan, R. and Duncan, I. J. H. Amsterdam, Elsevier, in press.Google Scholar
Jones, R. B. (1985c). Fear responses of individually-caged laying hens as a function of cage level and aisle. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 14: 63–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, R. B. (1985d). The fearfulness of hens caged individually or in groups in different tiers of a battery and the effects of translocation between tiers. British Poultry Science. 26: 399–408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, R. B., Bessei, W. and Faure, J. M. (1982). Aspects of “fear” in Japanese quail chicks (Coturnix coturnix japonica) genetically selected for different levels of locomotor activity. Behavioural Processes 7: 201–210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, R. B., Duncan, I. J. H. and Hughes, B. O. (1981). The assessment of fear in domestic hens exposed to a looming human stimulus. Behavioural Processes 6: 121–133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, R. B. and Faure, J. M. (1980). Tonic immobility (‘righting time’) in the domestic fowl: effects of various methods of induction. IRCS Medical Science 8: 184–185.Google Scholar
Jones, R. B. and Faure, J. M. (1981a). Sex and strain comparisons of tonic immobility (“righting time”) in the domestic fowl and the effects of various methods of induction. Behavioural Processes 6: 47–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, R. B. and Faure, J. M. (1981b). The effects of regular handling on fear responses in the domestic chick. Behavioural Processes 6: 135–143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, R. B. and Faure, J. M. (1981c). Tonic immobility (“righting time”) in laying hens housed in cages and pens. Applied Animal Ethology 7: 369–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, R. B. and Faure, J. M. (1982a). Tonic immobility in the domestic fowl as a function of social rank. Biology of Behaviour 7: 27–32.Google Scholar
Jones, R. B. and Faure, J. M. (1982b). Open-field behaviour of male and female domestic chicks as a function of housing conditions, test situations and novelty. Biology of Behaviour 7: 17–25.Google Scholar
Jones, R. B. and Hughes, B. O. (1981). Effects of regular handling on growth in male and female chicks of broiler and layer strains. British Poultry Science 22: 461–465.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, R. B. and Mills, A. D. (1983). Estimation of fear in two lines of the domestic chick: correlations between various methods. Behavioural Processes 8: 243–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katzir, G. (1982). Relationships between social structure and response to novelty in captive jackdaws, Corvus monedula L., 1. Response to novel space. Behaviour 81: 231–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katzir, G. (1983). Relationships between social structure and response to novelty in captive jackdaws, Corvus monedula L., II. Response to novel palatable food. Behaviour 87: 183–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klemm, W. R. (1971a). Neurophysiologic studies of the immobility reflex (“animal hypnosis”). In Neurosciences Research Vol. 4, pp. 165–212. Ed by Ehrenpreis, S. and Solnitzky, O. C. New York, NY, Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klemm, W. R. (1971b). Evoked responses in brain motor areas during the immobility reflex (“animal hypnosis”). Physiology and Behaviour 6: 137–144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klemm, W. R. (1976). Identity of sensory and motor systems that are critical to the immobility reflex (“animal hypnosis”). Journal of Neuroscience Research 2: 57–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kujiyat, S. K., Craig, J. V. and Dayton, A. D. (1983). Duration of tonic immobility affected by housing environment in White Leghorn hens. Poultry Science 62: 2280–2282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leyhausen, P. (1979). Cat Behaviour: The Predatory and Social Behaviour of Domestic and Wild Cats. 340 pp. New York, N. Y., Garland STPM Press.Google Scholar
Maser, J. D., Klara, J. W. and Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1973). Archistriatal lesions enhance tonic immobility in the chicken (Gallus gallus). Physiology and Behaviour 11: 729–733.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mauldin, J. M. and Siegel, P. B. (1979). “Fear”, head shaking and production in five populations of caged chickens. British Poultry Science 20: 39–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montevecchi, W. A. (1978). Tonic immobility responses of herring gull chicks. Condor 80: 248–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montevecchi, W. A. and Noel, P. E. (1978). Temporal effects of mirror-image stimulation on pecking and peeping in isolate, pair-and group-reared chicks. Behavioural Biology 23: 531–535.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, L. B. (1978). The practical problems of recognizing and measuring fear and exploration behaviour in the domestic fowl. Animal Behaviour 26: 422–431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, L. B. and Duncan, I. J. H. (1977). Attempts to modify the responses of domestic fowl towards human beings. I. The association of human contact with a food reward. Applied Animal Ethology 3: 321–334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, L. B. and Duncan, I. J. H. (1978). Attempts to modify the responses of domestic fowl towards human beings. II. The effect of early experience. Applied Animal Ethology 4: 5–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McBride, R. L. and Klemm, W. R. (1969). Mechanisms of the immobility reflex (“animal hypnosis”): I. Influence of repetition of induction, restriction of auditory-visual input, and destruction of brain areas. Communications in Behavioural Biology 3: 33–41.Google Scholar
Nash, R. F. (1977). Effect of the visual presence of an experimenter on the maintenance of tonic immobility in domestic chickens (Gallus gallus). The Psychological Record 27: 779–782.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nash, R. F. (1978). Habituation and tonic immobility in chickens: strain comparisons. The Psychological Record 28: 109–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nash, R. F. and Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1975). Aversiveness of the induction of tonic immobility in chickens (Gallus gallus). Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 88: 935–939.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nash, R. F. and Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1976). Habituation and tonic immobility in domestic chickens. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 90: 870–876.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nash, R. F., Gallup, G. G. Jr. and Czech, D. A. (1976). Psychophysiological correlates of tonic immobility in the domestic chicken (Gallus gallus). Physiology and Behaviour 17: 413–418.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nash, R. F., Ronci, F. W. and Girdaukas, G. L. (1976). Long-term retention of the habituation of tonic immobility. The Psychological Record 26: 243–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ookawa, T. (1972). Polygraphic recordings during adult hen hypnosis. Poultry Science 51: 853–858.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pavlov, I. P. (1921). Concerning the so-called hypnotism in animals. In Psychopathology and Psychiatry: Selected Works, pp. 70–71. Moscow (1972), Foreign Languages Publishing House.Google Scholar
Phillips, R. E. (1964). “Wildness” in the Mallard duck: effects of brain lesions and stimulation on “escape behaviour” and reproduction. Journal of Comparative Neurology 122: 139–195.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prestrude, A. M. and Crawford, F. T. (1970). Tonic immobility in the lizard, Iguana iguana. Animal Behaviour 18: 391–395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ratner, S. C. (1967). Comparative aspects of hypnosis. In Handbook in Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, pp. 550–587. Ed by Gordon, J. E. New York, N. Y., Macmillan.Google Scholar
Ratner, S. C. and Thompson, R. W. (1960). Immobility reactions (fear) of domestic fowl as a function of age and prior experience. Animal Behaviour 8: 186–191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosen, J. (1958). Dominance behaviour as a function of post-weaning gentling in the albino rat. Canadian Journal of Psychology 12: 229–234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rovee, C. K., Kaufman, L. W., Collier, G. H. and Kent, G. C. Jr. (1976). Periodicity of death feigning by domestic fowl in response to simulated predation. Physiology and Behaviour 17: 891–895.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rovee, C. K. and Kleinman, J. M. (1974). Developmental changes in tonic immobility in young chicks (Gallus gallus). Developmental Psychobiology 7: 71–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rovee, C. K. and Luciano, D. P. (1973). Rearing influences on tonic immobility in three-day-old chicks (Gallus gallus). Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 83: 351–354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rovee-Collier, C. K., Capatides, J. B., Fagen, J. W. and Negri, V. (1983). Selective habituation of defensive behaviour: Evidence for predator-prey synchrony. Animal Learning and Behaviour 11: 127–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salzen, E. A. (1963). Imprinting and the immobility reactions of domestic fowl. Animal Behaviour 11: 66–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salzen, E. A. and Parker, D. M. (1975). Arousal and orientation functions of the avian telencephalon. In Neural and Endocrine Aspects of Behaviour in Birds, pp. 205–242. Ed by Wright, P, Caryl, P. G. and Vowles, D. M. Amsterdam, Elsevier.Google Scholar
Sargeant, A. B. and Eberhardt, L. E. (1975). Death feigning by ducks in response to predation by red foxes (Vulpes fulva). American Midland Naturalist 94: 108–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneiderman, N. (1970). Determinants of heart rate classical conditioning. In Current Issues in Animal Learning, pp. 85–116. Ed by Reynierse, J. H. Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Siegel, P. B. (1979). Behaviour genetics in chickens: a review. World's Poultry Science Journal 35: 9–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sigman, S. E. and Prestrude, A. M. (1981). Auditory imprinting in domestic chicks during tonic immobility. Developmental Psychobiology 14: 473–480.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suarez, S. D. and Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1981). Predatory overtones of open-field testing in chickens. Animal Learning and Behaviour 9: 153–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Syme, L. A. and Syme, G. J. (1983). Position in the peck order and response to human threat in domestic fowl. Applied Animal Ethology 9: 351–357.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, R. K. R., Foltin, R. W., Boylan, R. J., Sweet, A., Graves, C. A. and Lowitz, C. E. (1981). Tonic immobility in Japanese quail can reduce the probability of sustained attack by cats. Animal Learning and Behaviour 9: 145–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, R. W. and Joseph, S. (1978). The effect of norepinephrine on tonic immobility in chickens. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 12: 123–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tolman, C. W. (1965). Emotional behaviour and social facilitation of feeding in domestic chicks. Animal Behaviour 13: 493–496.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallnau, L. B. (1981). The effects of quipazine, fenfluramine and apomorphine on the morphine potentiation of tonic immobility. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behaviour 15: 895–901.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallnau, L. B., Bordash, G. D. and Corso, P. Jr. (1981). Tonic immobility in domestic fowl: possible interaction of serotonergic and dopaminergic mechanisms. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behaviour 14: 469–473.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallnau, L. B. and Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1977). A serotonergic, midbrain-raphe model of tonic immobility. Biobehavioural Review 1: 35–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walsh, R. N. and Cummins, R. A. (1975). Mechanisms mediating the production of environmentally induced brain changes. Psychological Bulletin 82: 986–1000.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wright, P. (1975). The neural substrate of feeding behaviour in birds. In Neural and Endocrine Aspects of Behaviour in Birds, pp. 319–349. Ed by Wright, P., Caryl, P. G. and Vowles, D. M. Amsterdam, Elsevier.Google Scholar
Zajonc, R. B., Markus, H. and Wilson, W. R. (1974). Exposure, object preference, and distress in the domestic chick. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 86: 581–585.CrossRefGoogle Scholar