Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T14:08:24.528Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Willpower with and without effort

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 August 2020

George Ainslie Open the ORCID record for George Ainslie [Opens in a new window]
George Ainslie*
Affiliation:
Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Coatesville, PA19320; and School of Economics, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch 7710, South Africa. George.Ainslie@va.gov; http://www.picoeconomics.org
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Most authors who discuss willpower assume that everyone knows what it is, but our assumptions differ to such an extent that we talk past each other. We agree that willpower is the psychological function that resists temptations – variously known as impulses, addictions, or bad habits; that it operates simultaneously with temptations, without prior commitment; and that use of it is limited by its cost, commonly called effort, as well as by the person's skill at executive functioning. However, accounts are usually not clear about how motivation functions during the application of willpower, or how motivation is related to effort. Some accounts depict willpower as the perceiving or formation of motivational contingencies that outweigh the temptation, and some depict it as a continuous use of mechanisms that interfere with re-weighing the temptation. Some others now suggest that impulse control can bypass motivation altogether, although they refer to this route as habit rather than willpower.

It is argued here that willpower should be recognized as either or both of two distinct functions, which can be called resolve and suppression. Resolve is based on interpretation of a current choice as a test case for a broader set of future choices, which puts at stake more than the outcome of the current choice. Suppression is inhibiting valuation of (modulating) and/or keeping attention from (filtering) immediate alternatives to a current intention. Perception of current choices as test cases for broader outcomes may result in reliable preference for these outcomes, which is experienced as an effortless habit – a successful result of resolve, not an alternative method of self-control. Some possible brain imaging correlates are reviewed.

Keywords

Addictiondual valuationfrontocortical imaginghabitimpulsivenessinhibitionintertemporal bargainingresolverewardself-controlsuppression
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 44 , 2021 , e30
Check for updates
Creative Commons
The target article and response article are works of the U.S. Government and are not subject to copyright protection in the United States.
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ackerman, P. L. (2011). 100 years without resting. In Ackerman, P. L. (Ed.), Cognitive fatigue; multidisciplinary perspectives on current research and future applications (pp. 11–43). American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ainslie, G. (1974). Impulse control in pigeons. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 21, 485–489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ainslie, G. (1975). Specious reward: A behavioral theory of impulsiveness and impulse control. Psychological Bulletin, 82, 463–496.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ainslie, G. (1982). Internal Self-control in Pigeons, unpublished data. http://www.picoeconomics.org/PDFarticles/InternalPigeons82.pdf.Google Scholar
Ainslie, G. (1992). Picoeconomics: The strategic interaction of successive motivational states within the person. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ainslie, G. (2001). Breakdown of will. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ainslie, G. (2004). The self is virtual, the will is not illusory. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 27, 659–660. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X04220155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ainslie, G. (2005). Précis of Breakdown of Will. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28, 635–673. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X05000117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ainslie, G. (2007). Can thought experiments prove anything about the will? In Ross, D., Spurrett, D., Kincaid, H. & Stephens, L. (Eds.), Distributed cognition and the will: Individual volition and social context (pp. 169–196). MIT Press.Google Scholar
Ainslie, G. (2009). Pleasure and aversion: Challenging the conventional dichotomy. Inquiry: A Journal of Medical Care Organization, Provision and Financing, 52, 357–377. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00201740903087342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ainslie, G. (2010a). Procrastination, the basic impulse. In Andreou, C. & White, M. (Eds.), The thief of time: Philosophical essays on procrastination (pp. 11–27). Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ainslie, G. (2010b). The core process in addictions and other impulses: Hyperbolic discounting versus conditioning and cognitive framing. In Ross, D., Kincaid, H., Spurrett, D. & Collins, P. (Eds.), What is addiction? (pp. 211–245). MIT Press.Google Scholar
Ainslie, G. (2011). Free will as recursive self-prediction: Does a deterministic mechanism reduce responsibility? In Poland, J. & Graham, G. (Eds.), Addiction and responsibility (pp. 55–87). MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ainslie, G. (2012). Pure hyperbolic discount curves predict “eyes open” self-control. Theory and Decision, 73, 3–34. doi: 10.1007/s11238-011-9272-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ainslie, G. (2015). Psychopathology arises from intertemporal bargaining as well as from emotional trauma. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 38, 19–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ainslie, G. (2017). De gustibus disputare: Hyperbolic delay discounting integrates five approaches to choice. Journal of Economic Methodology, 24, 166–189. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1350178X.2017.1309748.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ainslie, G., & Monterosso, J. (2003). Building blocks of self-control: Increased tolerance for delay with bundled rewards. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 79, 83–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anokhin, A. P., Golosheykin, S., Grant, J. D., & Heath, A. C. (2011). Heritability of delay discounting in adolescence: A longitudinal twin study. Behavioral Genetics, 41, 175–183. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10519-010-9384-7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ariely, D., & Loewenstein, G. (2006). The heat of the moment: The effect of sexual arousal on sexual decision making. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 19, 87–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bdm.501.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aristotle, . (1984). The complete works of Aristotle. In Barnes, J. (Ed.), Princeton University Press (Original work published ca. 350 B.C.E.).Google Scholar
Arrow, K. J. (1999). Inter-generational equity and the rate of discount in long-term social investment. In Sertel, M. R. (Ed.), Contemporary economic issues (pp. 89–102). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-14540-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bain, A. (1859/1886). The emotions and the will. Appleton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ballard, I. C., Kim, B., Liatsis, A., Aydogan, G., Cohen, J. D., & McClure, S. M. (2017). More is meaningful: The magnitude effect in intertemporal choice depends on self-control. Psychological Science, 28, 1443–1454. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797617711455.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., Gailliot, M., DeWall, C. N., & Oaten, M. (2006). Self-regulation and personality: How interventions increase regulatory success, and how depletion moderates the effects of traits on behavior. Journal of Personality, 74, 1773–1801. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00428.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bénabou, R., & Tirole, J. (2004). Willpower and personal rules. Journal of Political Economy, 112, 848–886.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benhabib, J., & Bisin, A. (2005). Modeling internal commitment mechanisms and self-control: A neuroeconomics approach to consumption-saving decisions. Games and Economic Behavior, 52, 460–492. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geb.2004.10.004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benoit, R. G., Gilbert, S. J., & Burgess, P. W. (2011). A neural mechanism mediating the impact of episodic prospection on farsighted decisions. Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 6771–6779. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6559-10.2011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beran, M. (2018). Self-control in animals and people. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Beran, M. J., Perner, J., & Proust, J. (Eds.). (2012). Foundations of metacognition. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berkman, E. T., Livingston, J. L., & Kahn, L. E. (2017). Finding the “self” in self-regulation: The identity-value model. Psychological Inquiry, 28, 77–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2017.1323463.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bodner, R., & Prelec, D. (2003). The diagnostic value of actions in a self-signaling model. In Brocas, I. & Carillo, J. D. (Eds.), The psychology of economic decisions Vol. 1: Rationality and well-being (pp. 105–126). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Boksem, M. A., & Tops, M. (2008). Mental fatigue: Costs and benefits. Brain Research Reviews, 59, 125–139.Google ScholarPubMed
Bratman, M. E. (1999). Faces of intention: Selected essays on intention and agency (pp. 35–57). Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bratman, M. E. (2014). Temptation and the agent's standpoint. Inquiry: A Journal of Medical Care Organization, Provision and Financing, 57, 293–310. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0020174X.2014.894271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bratman, M. E. (2017). Rational planning agency. Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplements, 80, 25–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1358246117000042.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brewer, N. T., & Rimer, B. K. (2015). Perspectives on health behavior theories that focus on individuals. In Glanz, K., Rimer, B. & Viswanath, K. (Eds.), Health behavior and health education: Theory, research, and practice (4th ed.), 67–74. Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Bulley, A., Henry, J., & Suddendorf, T. (2016). Prospection and the present moment: The role of episodic foresight in intertemporal choices between immediate and delayed rewards. Review of General Psychology, 20, 29–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000061.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cabanac, M. (1992). Pleasure: The common currency. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 155, 173–200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carden, L., & Wood, W. (2018). Habit formation and change. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 20, 117–122. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.12.009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carruthers, P. (2009). How we know our own minds: The relationship between mindreading and metacognition. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 32, 121–138. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X09000545.Google ScholarPubMed
Charlton, W. (1988). Weakness of the will. Blackwell.Google Scholar
Cho, S. S., Ko, J. H., Pellecchia, G., Van Eimeren, T., Cilia, R., & Strafella, A. P. (2010). Continuous theta burst stimulation of right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex induces changes in impulsivity level. Brain Stimulation, 3, 170–176. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2009.10.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Civier, O., Tasko, S. M., & Guenther, F. H. (2010). Overreliance on auditory feedback may lead to sound/syllable repetitions: Simulations of stuttering and fluency-inducing conditions with a neural model of speech production. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 35, 246–279. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfludis.2010.05.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Converse, P. D., & DeShon, R. P. (2009). A tale of two tasks: Reversing the self-regulatory resource depletion effect. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 1318–1324. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0014604.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crockett, M. J., Braams, B. R., Clark, L., Tobler, P. N., & Robbins, T. W. (2013). Restricting temptations: Neural mechanisms of precommitment. Neuron, 79, 391–401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.05.028.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cropper, M. L., & Laibson, D. I. (1998). The implications of hyperbolic discounting for project evaluation. World Bank Publications.Google Scholar
Curry, S., Marlatt, A., & Gordon, J. R. (1987). Abstinence violation effect: Validation of an attributional construct with smoking cessation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 145–149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dar, R., Rosen-Korakin, N., Shapira, O., Gottlieb, Y., & Frenk, H. (2010). The craving to smoke in flight attendants: Relations with smoking deprivation, anticipation of smoking, and actual smoking. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 248–253. doi: 10.1037/a0017778.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dar, R., Stronguin, F., Marouani, R., Krupsky, M., & Frenk, H. (2005). Craving to smoke in orthodox Jewish smokers who abstain on the Sabbath: A comparison to a baseline and a forced abstinence workday. Psychopharmacology, 183, 294–299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Wit, S., Kindt, M., Knot, S. L., Verhoeven, A. A., Robbins, T. W., Gasull-Camos, J., … Gillan, C. M. (2018). Shifting the balance between goals and habits: Five failures in experimental habit induction. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 147(7), 1043–1065. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/xge0000402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dolan, R. J., & Dayan, P. (2013). Goals and habits in the brain. Neuron, 80, 312–325. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.09.007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duckworth, A. L., Gendler, T. S., & Gross, J. J. (2016). Situational strategies for self-control. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11, 35–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691615623247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duckworth, A. L., Taxer, J. L., Eskreis-Winkler, L., Galla, B. M., & Gross, J. J. (2019). Self-control and academic achievement. Annual Review of Psychology, 70, 373–399. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-103230.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elster, J. (2015). Explaining social behavior: More nuts and bolts for the social sciences. Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107763111.Google Scholar
Ersche, K. K., Roiser, J. P., Robbins, T. W., & Sahakian, B. J. (2008). Chronic cocaine but not chronic amphetamine use is associated with perseverative responding in humans. Psychopharmacology, 197, 421–431. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-007-1051-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Everitt, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (2005). Neural systems of reinforcement for drug addiction: From actions to habits to compulsion. Nature Neuroscience, 22, 3312–3320.Google Scholar
Everitt, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (2013). From the ventral to the dorsal striatum: Devolving views of their roles in drug addiction. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 37, 1946–1954. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.02.010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fellows, L. K., & Farah, M. J. (2005). Different underlying impairments in decision-making following ventromedial and dorsolateral frontal lobe damage in humans. Cerebral Cortex, 15, 58–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferrero, L. (2010). Decisions, diachronic autonomy, and the division of deliberative labor. Philosophers’ Imprint, 10, 1–23.Google Scholar
Figner, B., Knoch, D., Johnson, E. J., Krosch, A. R., Lisanby, S. H., Fehr, E., & Weber, E. U. (2010). Lateral prefrontal cortex and self-control in intertemporal choice. Nature Neuroscience, 13, 538–539. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nn.2516.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fox, K. C., Andrews-Hanna, J. R., Mills, C., Dixon, M. L., Markovic, J., Thompson, E., & Christoff, K. (2018). Affective neuroscience of self-generated thought. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1425, 26–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/nyas.13740.Google Scholar
Friese, M., Loschelder, D. D., Gieseler, K., Frankenbach, J., & Inzlicht, M. (2019). Is ego depletion real? An analysis of arguments. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 23, 107–131. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1088868318762183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fudenberg, D., & Levine, D. (2006). A dual-self model of impulse control. American Economic Review, 96, 1449–1476.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fujita, K. (2011) On conceptualizing self-control as more than the effortful inhibition of impulses. Personality and Social Psychology Review 15, 352–366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galla, B. M., & Duckworth, A. L. (2015). More than resisting temptation: Beneficial habits mediate the relationship between self-control and positive life outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 508–525. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000026.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gershman, S. J., Markman, A. B., & Otto, A. R. (2014). Retrospective revaluation in sequential decision making: A tale of two systems. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143, 182–194. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/xge0000402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibbon, J. (1977). Scalar expectancy theory and Weber's law in animal timing. Psychological Review, 84(3), 279–325. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.3.279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glanz, K., Rimer, B. K., & Viswanath, K. (Eds.). (2015). Health behavior: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 65–148). John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Gollier, C., & Weitzman, M. L. (2010). How should the distant future be discounted when discount rates are uncertain? Economics Letters, 107, 350–353. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2010.03.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gollwitzer, P. M., Fujita, K., & Oettingen, G. (2004). Planning and the implementation of goals. In Baumeister, R. F. (Ed.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 211–228). Guilford.Google Scholar
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P. (2006). Implementation intentions and goal achievement: A meta-analysis of effects and processes. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 69–119.Google Scholar
Gowdy, J., Rosser, J. B. Jr, & Roy, L. (2013). The evolution of hyperbolic discounting: Implications for truly social valuation of the future. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 90, S94–S104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2012.12.013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, L., Fry, A., & Myerson, J. (1994). Discounting of delayed rewards: A life-span comparison. Psychological Science, 5, 33–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, L., & Myerson, J. (2013). How many impulsivities? A discounting perspective. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 99, 3–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jeab.1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, L., Myerson, J., & Macaux, E. W. (2005). Temporal discounting when the choice is between two delayed rewards. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 31, 1121–1133.Google ScholarPubMed
Green, L., Myerson, J., & Ostaszewski, P. (1999). Discounting of delayed rewards across the life span: Age differences in individual discounting functions. Behavioural Processes, 46, 89–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Griffiths, M. D. (2008). Diagnosis and management of video game addiction. New Directions in Addiction Treatment and Prevention, 12, 27–41.Google Scholar
Grilo, C. M., & Shiffman, S. (1994). Longitudinal investigation of the abstinence violation effect in binge eaters. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 62, 611–619.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gul, F., & Pesendorfer, W. (2001). Temptation and self-control. Econometrica, 69, 1403–1435.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gul, F., & Pesendorfer, W. (2004). Self-control, revealed preference and consumption choice. Review of Economic Dynamics, 7, 243–264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hagger, M. S., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., Alberts, H., Angonno, C. O., Batailler, C., Birt, A., Zwienenberg, M. (2016). A multi-lab pre-registered replication of the ego-depletion effect. Perspectives on Psychological. Science (New York, N.Y.), 11, 546–573. doi: 10.1177/1745691616652873.Google Scholar
Hagger, M. S., Wood, C., Stiff, C., & Chatzisarantis, N. L. (2010). Ego depletion and the strength model of self-control: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136(4), 495–525.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haith, A. M., Reppert, T. R., & Shadmehr, R. (2012). Evidence for hyperbolic temporal discounting of reward in control of movements. Journal of Neuroscience, 32, 11727–11736. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0424-12.2012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hall, P. A., & Fong, G. T. (2015). Temporal self-regulation theory: A neurobiologically informed model for physical activity behavior. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9, 117. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanson, C. (2009). Thinking about addiction: Hyperbolic discounting and responsible agency. Rodopi.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hare, T. A., Camerer, C. F., & Rangel, A. (2009). Self-control in decision-making involves modulation of the vmPFC valuation system. Science (New York, N.Y.), 324, 646–648. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1168450.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hare, T. A., Hakimi, S., & Rangel, A. (2014). Activity in dlPFC and its effective connectivity to vmPFC are associated with temporal discounting. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 8, 50. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2014.00050.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hare, T. A., Malmaud, J., & Rangel, A. (2011). Focusing attention on the health aspects of foods changes value signals in vmPFC and improves dietary choice. Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 11077–11087. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6383-10.2011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harris, A., Hare, T., & Rangel, A. (2013). Temporally dissociable mechanisms of self-control: Early attentional filtering versus late value modulation. Journal of Neuroscience, 33, 18917–18931. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5816-12.2013.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harrison, G. W., Hofmeyr, A., Ross, D., & Swarthout, J. T. (2018). Risk preferences, time preferences, and smoking behavior. Southern Economic Journal, 85, 313–348. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/soej.12275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrison, G. W., Lau, M. I., & Rutström, E. E. (2005). Dynamic Consistency in Denmark: A Longitudinal Field Experiment. Working Paper 5-02, Department of Economics, College of Business Administration, University of Central Florida, January 2005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 61–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0999152X.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heyman, G. M. (1996). Resolving the contradictions of addiction. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 19, 561–610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heyman, G. M. (2009). Addiction: A disorder of choice. Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoch, M., & Lister, L. (2016). Voice secrets: 100 performance strategies for the advanced singer. Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Hockey, G. R. J. (2011). A motivational control theory of cognitive fatigue. In Ackerman, P. L. (Ed.), Cognitive fatigue: Multidisciplinary perspectives on current research and future applications (pp. 167–187). American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofmann, W., & Kotabe, H. (2012). A general model of preventive and interventive self-control. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6, 707–722. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00461.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofmeyr, A., Ainslie, G., Charlton, R., & Ross, D. (2010). The relationship between addiction and reward bundling: An experiment comparing smokers and non-smokers. Addiction, 106, 402–409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03166.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hofmeyr, A., Monterosso, J., Dean, A. C., Morales, A. M., Bilder, R. M., Sabb, F. W., & London, E. D. (2017). Mixture models of delay discounting and smoking behavior. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 43, 271–280. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00952990.2016.1198797.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holton, R. (2003) How is strength of will possible? In Stroud, S. & Tappolet, C. (Eds.), Weakness of will and practical irrationality (pp. 39–67). Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holton, R. (2009). Determinism, self-efficacy, and the phenomenology of free will. Inquiry: A Journal of Medical Care Organization, Provision and Financing, 52, 412–428. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00201740903087383.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holton, R., & Berridge, K. (2013). Addiction between compulsion and choice. In Heather, N. & Segal, G. (Eds.), Addiction and self-control: Perspectives from philosophy, psychology, and neuroscience (pp. 239–268). Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hsiaw, A. (2013). Goal-setting and self-control. Journal of Economic Theory, 148, 601–626. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jet.2012.08.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hudson, S. M., Ward, T., & France, K. G. (1992). The abstinence violation effect in regressed and fixated child molesters. Annals of Sex Research, 5, 199–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
James, W. (1890). Principles of psychology. Holt.Google Scholar
Jenkins, A. C., & Hsu, M. (2017). Dissociable contributions of imagination and willpower to the malleability of human patience. Psychological Science, 28, 894–906. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797617698133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, M. W., & Bickel, W. K. (2002). Within-subject comparison of real and hypothetical money rewards in delay discounting. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 77, 129–146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kable, J. W., & Glimcher, P. W. (2007). The neural correlates of subjective value during intertemporal choice. Nature Neuroscience, 10, 1625–1633. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nn2007.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahneman, D. (2000). Experienced utility and objective happiness: A moment-based approach. In Kahneman, D. & Tversky, A. (Eds.), Choices, values, and frames (pp. 673–692). Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keiner, M. (Ed.). (2006). The future of sustainability. Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennett, J., & Smith, M. (1997). Synchronic self-control is always non-actional. Analysis, 57, 123–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirby, K. N. (1997). Bidding on the future: Evidence against normative discounting of delayed rewards. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 126, 54–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirby, K. N., & Guastello, B. (2001). Making choices in anticipation of similar future choices can increase self-control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 7, 154–164.Google ScholarPubMed
Kober, H., Mende-Siedlecki, P., Kross, E. F., Weber, J., Mischel, W., Hart, C. L., & Ochsner, K. N. (2010). Prefrontal-striatal pathway underlies cognitive regulation of craving. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, 14811–14816. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1007779107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kool, W., Cushman, F. A., & Gershman, S. J. (2018). Competition and cooperation between multiple reinforcement learning systems. In Morris, R. W., Bornstein, A. & Shenhav, A. (Eds.), Goal-directed decision making: Computations and neural circuits (pp. 153–178). Elsevier.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kőszegi, B., & Rabin, M. (2009). Reference-dependent consumption plans. American Economic Review, 99, 909–939. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/aer.99.3.909.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kotabe, H. P., & Hofmann, W. (2015). On integrating the components of self-control. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10, 618–638. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691615593382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurzban, R., Duckworth, A., Kable, J. W., & Myers, J. (2013). An opportunity cost model of subjective effort and task performance. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36, 661–726. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X12003196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laibson, D. (1997). Golden eggs and hyperbolic discounting. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 62, 443–479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lally, P., Van Jaarsveld, C. H., Potts, H. W., & Wardle, J. (2010). How are habits formed: Modelling habit formation in the real world. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 998–1009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.674.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lally, P., Wardle, J., & Gardner, B. (2011). Experiences of habit formation: A qualitative study. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 16, 484–489. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.555774.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lerner, J. S., Li, Y., Valdesolo, P., & Kassam, K. S. (2015). Emotion and decision making. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 799–823. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115043.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, E. (1838). A dissertation on oaths. Philadelphia, PA: Uriah Hunt.Google Scholar
Lewis, M. (2017). Addiction and the brain: Development, not disease. Neuroethics, 10, 7–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lim, S. L., Cherry, J. B. C., Davis, A. M., Balakrishnan, S. N., Ha, O. R., Bruce, J. M., & Bruce, A. S. (2016). The child brain computes and utilizes internalized maternal choices. Nature Communications, 7, 11700. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms11700.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loewenstein, G. (1996). Out of control: Visceral influences on behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 35, 272–292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loewenstein, G., O'Donoghue, T., & Bhatia, S. (2015). Modeling the interplay between affect and deliberation. Decision, 2, 55–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/dec0000029.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luo, S., Ainslie, G., & Monterosso, J. (2014). The behavioral and neural effect of emotional primes on intertemporal decisions. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9, 283–291. doi: 10.1093/scan/nss132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luo, S., Ainslie, G., Pollini, D., Giragosian, L., & Monterosso, J. R. (2012). Moderators of the association between brain activation and farsighted choice. NeuroImage, 59, 1469–1477. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.08.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luo, S., Giragosian, L., Ainslie, G., & Monterosso, J. (2009). Behavioral and neural evidence of incentive bias for immediate rewards relative to preference-matched delayed rewards. Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 14820–14827. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4261-09.2009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Magen, E., Dweck, C. S., & Gross, J. J. (2008). The hidden zero effect: Representing a single choice as an extended sequence reduces impulsive choice. Psychological Science, 19, 648. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02137.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Magen, E., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Harnessing the need for immediate gratification: Cognitive reconstrual modulates the reward value of temptations. Emotion (Washington, D.C.), 7, 415–428. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.415.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Magen, E., Kim, B., Dweck, C. S., Gross, J. J., & McClure, S. M. (2014). Behavioral and neural correlates of increased self-control in the absence of increased willpower. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111, 9786–9791. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1408991111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maisto, S., Lauerman, R., & Adesso, V. (1977). A comparison of two experimental studies of the role of cognitive factors in alcoholics drinking. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 38, 145–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazur, J. E. (1986). Choice between single and multiple delayed reinforcers. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 46, 67–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McClennen, E. F. (2016). Rethinking rationality. In Verbeek, B. (Ed.), Reasons and intentions (pp. 49–78). Routledge.Google Scholar
McClennen, E. W. R. F. (2007). Ainslie's bundling and resolute choice. In Montero, B. & White, M. D. (Eds.), Economics and the mind (pp. 39–50). Routledge.Google Scholar
McClure, S. M., & Bickel, W. K. (2014). A dual-systems perspective on addiction: Contributions from neuroimaging and cognitive training. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1327, 62–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12561.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McClure, S. M., Laibson, D. I., Loewenstein, G., & Cohen, J. D. (2004). The grasshopper and the ant: Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards. Science (New York, N.Y.), 306, 503–507.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McFarland, D. J., & Sibley, R. M. (1975). The behavioural final common path. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, 270, 265–293.Google ScholarPubMed
Mele, A. (1996). Addiction and self-control. Behavior and Philosophy, 24, 99–117.Google Scholar
Metcalfe, J., & Mischel, W. (1999). A hot/cool-system analysis of delay of gratification: Dynamics of willpower. Psychological Review, 106, 3–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, W. R., & C'de Baca, J. (2001). Quantum change: When epiphanies and sudden insights transform ordinary lives. Guilford.Google Scholar
Mischel, W., Ayduk, O., Berman, M. G., Casey, B. J., Gotlib, I. H., Jonides, J., Shoda, Y. (2011). ‘Willpower’ over the life span: decomposing self-regulation. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 6, 252–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mischel, W., & Ebbeson, E. (1970). Attention in delay of gratification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16, 329–337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miyake, A., & Friedman, N. P. (2012). The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: Four general conclusions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 8–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0963721411429458.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Montague, P. R., & Berns, G. S. (2002). Neural economics and the biological substrates of valuation. Neuron, 36, 265–284.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Monterosso, J., & Ainslie, G. (1999). Beyond discounting: Possible experimental models of impulse control. Psychopharmacology, 146, 339–347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Monterosso, J. R., & Luo, S. (2010). An argument against dual valuation system competition: Cognitive capacities supporting future orientation mediate rather than compete with visceral motivations. Journal of Neuroscience, Psychology, and Economics, 3, 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0016827.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mulcahy, N. J., & Call, J. (2006). Apes save tools for future use. Science (New York, N.Y.), 312, 1038–1040. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1125456.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muraven, M. (2006). Conserving self-control strength. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 524–537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muraven, M., & Baumeister, R. (2000). Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle? Psychological Bulletin, 126, 247–259.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neal, D. T., Wood, W., & Drolet, A. (2013). How do people adhere to goals when willpower is low? The profits (and pitfalls) of strong habits. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104, 959–975. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0032626.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Donoghue, T., & Rabin, M. (1999). Doing it now or later. The American Economic Review, 89, 103–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olson, M. (1982) The rise and decline of nations. Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Osvath, M. (2009). Spontaneous planning for future stone throwing by a male chimpanzee. Current Biology, 19, 190–192. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2009.01.010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Otto, A. R., Gershman, S. J., Markman, A. B., & Daw, N. D. (2013). The curse of planning: Dissecting multiple reinforcement-learning systems by taxing the central executive. Psychological Science, 24, 751–761. doi: 10.1177/0956797612463080.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pedersen, M. L., Frank, M. J., & Biele, G. (2017). The drift diffusion model as the choice rule in reinforcement learning. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 24, 1234–1251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peters, J., & Büchel, C. (2010). Episodic future thinking reduces reward delay discounting through an enhancement of prefrontal-mediotemporal interactions. Neuron, 66, 138–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peterson, M., & Vallentyne, P. (2018). Self-prediction and self-control. Self-Control, Decision Theory, and Rationality: New Essays, 48. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13423-016-1199-y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (1985). Dieting and binging: A causal analysis. American Psychologist, 40, 193–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Posner, R. (1998). Rational choice, behavioral economics, and the law. Stanford Law Review, 50, 1551–1575.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poundstone, W. (1992). Prisoner's dilemma: John von Neumann, game theory, and the puzzle of the bomb. Doubleday.Google Scholar
Premack, D. (1970). Mechanisms of self-control. In Hunt, W. A. (Ed.), Learning mechanisms in smoking, 70. Aldine.Google Scholar
Rachlin, H. (1995). Self-control: Beyond commitment. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 18, 109–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Read, D., Loewenstein, G., & Rabin, M. (1999). Choice bracketing. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 19, 171–197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Redish, A. D. (2016). Vicarious trial and error. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 17, 147–159. doi: 10.1038/nrn.2015.30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Revusky, S., & Garcia, J. (1970). Learned associations over long delays. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 4, 1–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rick, S., & Loewenstein, G. (2008). Intangibility in intertemporal choice. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 363, 3813–3824. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, D. (2007). Introduction: Science catches the will. In Spurrett, D., Ross, D., Kincaid, H. & Stephens, L. (Eds.), Distributed cognition and the will: Individual volition and social context (pp. 1–16). MIT.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, D., Sharp, C., Vuchinich, R., & Spurrett, D. (2008). Midbrain mutiny: The picoeconomics and neuroeconomics of disordered gambling. MIT.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, J. M. (1978). Saying, feeling, and self-deception. Behaviorism, 6, 27–43.Google Scholar
Sambrook, T. D., Hardwick, B., Wills, A. J., & Goslin, J. (2018). Model-free and model-based reward prediction errors in EEG. NeuroImage, 178, 162–171. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.05.023.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Samuelson, P.A. (1937). A note on measurement of utility. Review of Economic Studies 4, 155–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schacter, D. L., Addis, D. R., & Szpunar, K. K. (2017). Escaping the past: Contributions of the hippocampus to future thinking and imagination. In Hannula, D. E. & Duff, M. C. (Eds.), The hippocampus from cells to systems (pp. 439–465). Springer International.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheres, A., De Water, E., & Mies, G. W. (2013). The neural correlates of temporal reward discounting. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 4, 523–545.Google ScholarPubMed
Scheres, A., Dijkstra, M., Ainslie, E., Balkan, J., Reynolds, B., Sonuga-Barke, E., & Castellano, F. X. (2006). Temporal and probabilistic discounting of rewards in children and adolescents: Effects of age and ADHD symptoms. Neuropsychologia, 44, 2092–2103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.10.012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schuck, N. W., Cai, M. B., Wilson, R. C., & Niv, Y. (2016). Human orbitofrontal cortex represents a cognitive map of state space. Neuron, 91, 1402–1412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2016.08.019.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schultz, W. (2016). Dopamine reward prediction-error signaling: A two-component response. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 17, 183–195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2015.26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Secades-Villa, R., Weidberg, S., García-Rodríguez, O., Fernández-Hermida, J. R., & Yoon, J. H. (2014). Decreased delay discounting in former cigarette smokers at one year after treatment. Addictive Behaviors, 39, 1087–1093. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.03.015.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shapiro, M. S., Siller, S., & Kacelnik, A. (2008). Simultaneous and sequential choice as a function of reward delay and magnitude: Normative, descriptive and process-based models tested in the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 34, 75–93. doi: 10.1037/0097-7403.34.1.75.Google Scholar
Shenhav, A., Musslick, S., Lieder, F., Kool, W., Griffiths, T. L., Cohen, J. D., & Botvinick, M. M. (2017). Toward a rational and mechanistic account of mental effort. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 40, 99–124. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-neuro-072116-031526.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shiffman, S., Hickcox, M., Paty, J. A., Gnys, M., Kassel, J. D., & Richards, T. J. (1997). The abstinence violation effect following smoking lapses and temptations. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 21, 497–523.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shizgal, P., & Conover, K. (1996). On the neural computation of utility. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 5, 37–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, B. J., Monterosso, J. R., Wakslak, C. J., Bechara, A., & Read, S. J. (2018). A meta-analytical review of brain activity associated with intertemporal decisions: Evidence for an anterior-posterior tangibility axis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 86, 85–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.01.005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soutschek, A., Ugazio, G., Crockett, M. J., Ruff, C. C., Kalenscher, T., & Tobler, P. N. (2017). Binding oneself to the mast: Stimulating frontopolar cortex enhances precommitment. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 12, 635–642. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsw176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spetter, M. S., Malekshahi, R., Birbaumer, N., Lührs, M., van der Veer, A. H., Scheffler, K., … Hallschmid, M. (2017). Volitional regulation of brain responses to food stimuli in overweight and obese subjects: A real-time fMRI feedback study. Appetite, 112, 188–195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2017.01.032.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sripada, C. S. (2014). How is willpower possible? The puzzle of synchronic self-control and the divided mind. Noûs, 48, 41–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0068.2012.00870.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steinberg, L., Graham, S., O'Brien, L., Woolard, J., Cauffman, E., & Banich, M. (2009). Age differences in future orientation and delay discounting. Child Development, 80, 28–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01244.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stroud, S., & Svirsky, L. (2019/2008). Weakness of will. In Allen, C., Nodelman, U. & Zalta, E. N. (Eds.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/weakness-will/. Downloaded 4/24/2020.Google Scholar
Sugden, R. (1991). Rational choice: A survey of contributions from economics and philosophy. Economic Journal, 101, 751–785.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sully, J. (1884). Outlines of psychology. N.Y.: Appleton.Google Scholar
Suzuki, M., & Gottlieb, J. (2013). Distinct neural mechanisms of distractor suppression in the frontal and parietal lobe. Nature Neuroscience, 16, 98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. L. (2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72, 271–324. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3506.2004.00263.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Telser, L. G. (1980). A theory of self-enforcing agreements. Journal of Business, 53, 27–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thaler, R., & Shefrin, H. (1981). An economic theory of self-control. Journal of Political Economy, 89, 392–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thibault, R. T., MacPherson, A., Lifshitz, M., Roth, R. R., & Raz, A. (2018). Neurofeedback with fMRI: A critical systematic review. NeuroImage, 172, 786–807. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.12.071.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tricomi, E., Balleine, B. W., & O'Doherty, J. P. (2009). A specific role for posterior dorsolateral striatum in human habit learning. European Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 2225–2232. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2009.06796.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological istance. Psychological Review, 117, 440–463. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0018963.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van den Bergh, B., Dewitte, S., & Warlop, L. (2008). Bikinis instigate generalized impatience in intertemporal choice. Journal of Consumer Research, 35, 85–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/525505.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van den Bos, W., & McClure, S. M. (2013). Towards a general model of temporal discounting. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 99, 58–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jeab.6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van den Bos, W., Rodriguez, C. A., Schweitzer, J. B., & McClure, S. M. (2014). Connectivity strength of dissociable striatal tracts predict individual differences in temporal discounting. Journal of Neuroscience, 34, 10298–10310. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4105-13.2014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Fowler, J. S., Tomasi, D., Telang, F., & Baler, R. (2010). Addiction: Decreased reward sensitivity and increased expectation sensitivity conspire to overwhelm the brain's control circuit. Bioessays, 32, 748–755. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bies.201000042.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Voon, V., Derbyshire, K., Rück, C., Irvine, M. A., Worbe, Y., Enander, J., … Bullmore, E. T. (2015). Disorders of compulsivity: A common bias towards learning habits. Molecular Psychiatry, 20, 345–352. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/mp.2014.44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, G. (2004). Free agency. In Watson, G. (Ed.), Agency and answerability (pp. 13–32). Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watson, P., & de Wit, S. (2018). Current limits of experimental research into habits and future directions. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 20, 33–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.09.012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wegner, D. M. (2002). The illusion of conscious will. MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wittman, M., Lovero, K. L., Lane, S. D., & Paulus, M. P. (2010). Now or later? Striatum and insula activation to immediate versus delayed rewards. Journal of Neuroscience, Psychology and Economics, 1, 15–26. doi: 10.1037/a0017252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, S. W., & Glimcher, P. W. (2018). The emerging standard neurobiological model of decision making: Strengths, weaknesses, and future directions. In Chen, S. H., Kaboudan, M. & Du, Y. R. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of computational economics and finance (pp. 688–713). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wulff, D. U., & van den Bos, W. (2018). Modeling choices in delay discounting. Psychological Science, 29, 1890–1894. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797616664342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xu, X., Demos, K. E., Leahey, T. M., Hart, C. N., Trautvetter, J., Coward, P., … Wing, R. R. (2014). Failure to replicate depletion of self-control. PLoS One, 9, e109950. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109950.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yaouanq, Y. L., & Schwardmann, P. (2019) Learning about one's self. CESifo Working Paper, No. 7455, Center for Economic Studies and Ifo Institute (CESifo), Munich.Google Scholar
Zelle, S. L., Gates, K. M., Fiez, J. A., Sayette, M. A., & Wilson, S. J. (2017). The first day is always the hardest: Functional connectivity during cue exposure and the ability to resist smoking in the initial hours of a quit attempt. NeuroImage, 151, 24–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.03.015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar