Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-xbtfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-14T16:31:33.418Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Floodwater Farming, Discontinuous Ephemeral Streams, and Puebloan Abandonment in Southwestern Colorado

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Gary A. Huckleberry  and
Brian R. Billman
Gary A. Huckleberry
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4910
Brian R. Billman
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of North Carolina, 301 Alumni Building, CB# 3115, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3115
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Geoarchaeological study on the southern piedmont of Sleeping Ute Mountain in southwestern Colorado indicates the presence of discontinuous ephemeral streams that were the foci of episodic Puebloan occupation between A.D. 600s and 1280. Characterized by arroyos, discontinuous ephemeral streams contain alternating aggrading and degrading reaches and are well suited for ak chin floodwater agriculture. Episodic Puebloan abandonment of the southern piedmont correlates with periods of drought but does not appear to be linked to stream entrenchment. We question a priori assumptions of droughts correlated to stream entrenchment and urge caution in the use of drought-arroyo models for settlement shifts in alluvial flood plains without supporting stratigraphic or geomorphic evidence.

Résumé

Résumé

Estudios geoarqueológicos en la bajada sur de Sleeping Ute Mountain, ubicada en el suroeste de Colorado indica la presencia de corrientes efímeras descontinuos que fueron los centros de asentamiento periódicos desde d.c. 600s hasta d.c. 1280. Estos arroyos efímeros condemn bancos y harrancos, y son ideales para la forma de agricultura que utiliza agua de inundaciones, llamada ak chin. El abandono periódico de los pueblos en la bajada sur se correlaciona temporalmente con épocas de aridez, pero no corresponde a la erosión de los canales. No creemos que todas las sequías se correlacionan con erosión en toda la vertiente, y recomendamos cautela en el uso del modelo de sequía-arroyo como indicación de cambios en los asentamientos de sistemas fluviales sin datos apoyados por estratigrafía or geomorfología.

Type
Reports
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 63 , Issue 4 , October 1998 , pp. 595 - 616
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Archaeology 1998

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Adler, M.A., Van Pool, T., and Leonard, R.D. 1996 Ancestral Pueblo Population Aggregation and Abandonment in the North American Southwest. Journal of World Prehistory 10: 373–136.Google Scholar
Agenbroad, L.D. 1975 The Alluvial Geology of Upper Grand Gulch, Utah; Its Relationship to Anasazi Inhabitation of the Cedar Mesa Area. In Canyonlands, pp. 63–66. Four Corners Geological Society Guidebook, 8th Field Conference.Google Scholar
Ahlstrom, R.V.N., Van West, C.R., and Dean, J.S. 1995 Environmental and Chronological Factors in the Mesa Verde-Northern Rio Grande Migration. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 14: 125–142.Google Scholar
Antevs, E. 1952 Arroyo-Cutting and Filling. The Journal of Geology, 60: 375–385.Google Scholar
Balling, R.C., Jr., Wells, S.G. 1990 Historical Rainfall Patterns and Arroyo Activity within the Zuni River Drainage Basin, New Mexico. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 80: 603–617.Google Scholar
Begin, Z.B., and Schumm, S.A. 1984 Gradational Thresholds and Landform Singularity: Significance for Quaternary Studies. Quaternary Research, 21: 267–274.Google Scholar
Betancourt, J. and Van Devender, T. 1981 Holocene Vegetation in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. Science 214: 656–658.Google Scholar
Billman, B.R. 1997a The Archaic Occupation of the Ute Mountain Piedmont. Soil Systems Publications in Archaeology No. 21, Phoenix.Google Scholar
Billman, B.R. 1997b Cannibalism in Cowboy Wash, Part 3: The Colorado Plateau in the Twelfth Century A.D. Paper presented at the 62nd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Nashville.Google Scholar
Billman, B.R. 1998 The Puebloan Period Occupation of the Ute Mountain Piedmont: Synthesis and Conclusions. In press. Soil Systems Publications in Archaeology No. 22, Vol. 7, Phoenix.Google Scholar
Bradfield, M. 1971 The Changing Pattern of Hopi Agriculture. Occasional Paper No. 30. Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, London.Google Scholar
Bryan, K. 1925 a Date of Channel Trenching (Arroyo Cutting) in the Arid Southwest. Science, 62: 338–344.Google Scholar
Bryan, K. 1925b The Papago County. U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 499. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Bryan, K. 1929 Floodwater Farming. Geographical Review 19: 444–456.Google Scholar
Bryan, K. 1941 Pre-Columbian Agriculture in the Southwest, as Conditioned by Periods of Alluviation. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 31: 219–242.Google Scholar
Bryan, K. 1954 The Geology of Chaco Canyon New Mexico in Relation to the Life and Remains of the Prehistoric Peoples of Pueblo Bonito. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections Vol. 122, No. 7, Publication 4141, Washington D.C.Google Scholar
Bryan, K. Albritton, C.C., Jr. 1943 Soil Phenomena as Evidence of Climate Changes. American Journal of Science 241: 469-90.Google Scholar
Bull, WB. 1991 Geomorphic Responses to Climatic Change. Oxford University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Bull, WB. 1997 Discontinuous Ephemeral Streams. Geomorphology 19: 227–276.Google Scholar
Burns, B.T. 1983 Simulated Anasazi Storage Behavior Using Crop Yields Reconstructed from Tree Ring Dates: A.D. 652-1968. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Castetter, E.R, and Bell, W.H. 1942 Pima and Papago Indian Agriculture. Inter-American Studies, Albuquerque, New Mexico.Google Scholar
Chenault, M.L. 1996 Settlement Patterns in the Mancos and La Plata River Basins, Volume 1. SWCA Archaeological Report No. 95- 73, Durango, Colorado.Google Scholar
Christenson, G.E. 1985 Quaternary Geology of the Montezuma Creek-Lower Recapture Creek Area, San Juan County, Utah. In Contributions to Quaternary Geology of the Colorado Plateau , pp. 3–31. Utah Geological and Mineral Survey Special Studies 64.Google Scholar
Cooke, R.U., Reeves, R. W. 1976 Arroyos and Environmental Change. Clarendon Press, Oxford, England.Google Scholar
Cordell, L.S. 1975 Predicting Site Abandonment at Wetherill Mesa. The Kiva 40: 189–202.Google Scholar
Cordell, L.S., Doyel, D.E., Kintigh, K.W. 1994 Processes of Aggregation in the Prehistoric Southwest. In Themes in Southwestern Prehistory, edited by Gumerman, G. J., pp. 109–133. School of American Research, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Dean, J.S. 1988 A Model of Anasazi Behavioral Adaptation. In The Anasazi in a Changing Environment, edited by Gumerman, G. J., pp. 25-14. Cambridge University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Dean, J.S., Doelle, W.H., and Orcutt, J.D. 1994 Adaptive Stress, Environment, and Demography. In Themes in Southwest Prehistory, edited by Gumerman, G.J., pp. 53–86.Google Scholar
Dean, J.S., Euler, R.C., Gumerman, G.J., Plog, F., Hevly, R.H., 1985 Human Behavior, Demography, and Paleoenvironment on the Colorado Plateau. American Antiquity 50: 537–554.Google Scholar
Doolittle, W. E. 1984 Agricultural Change as an Incremental Process. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 74: 124–137.Google Scholar
Doolittle, W. E. 1989 Arroyos and the Development of Agriculture in Northern Mexico. In Fragile Lands of Latin America: Strategies for Sustainable Development, edited by Browder, J.O., pp. 251–269. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Ekren, E. B., F. N., Houser 1965 Geology and Petrology of the Ute Mountains Area, Colorado. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 481. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Errikson, M. 1994 Class I Cultural Resource Inventory of Selected Lands Ute Mountain Ute Reservation, Montezuma and La Plata Counties, Colorado. Prepared for Bureau of Reclamation, Durango Projects Office. Complete Archaeological Services Associates, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Euler, R.C. 1988 Demography and Cultural Dynamics on the Colorado Plateau. In The Anasazi in a Changing Environment, edited by Gumerman, G. J., p. 192-239. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Euler, R.C., Gumerman, G.J., Karlstrom, T.N.V., Dean, J.S., 1979 The Colorado Plateaus: Cultural Dynamics and Paleoenvironments. Science 205: 1089–1101.Google Scholar
Euler, R.C., Gumerman, G.J., Karlstrom, T.N.V., Dean, J.S., 1994 Toward an Explanation for Southwestern “Abandonments.” In Themes in Southwestern Prehistory, edited by Gumerman, G. J., pp. 135–163. School of American Research, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Fish, S.K., Fish, PR., Madsen, J.H. 1992 Parameters of Agricultural Production in the Northern Tucson Basin. In The Marana Community in the Hohokam World, edited by Fish, S.K., Fish, P.R., and Madsen, J.H., pp. 41–52. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona, Number 56, Tucson.Google Scholar
Force, E. R., and Howell, W. K. 1996 Holocene Depositional History and Anasazi Occupation in McElmo Canyon, Southwestern Colorado. Arizona State Museum Archaeological Series, No. 188. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Fritz, H.C., Smith, D.G., and Stolzer, M.A. 1965 The Biological Model for Paleoclimatic Interpretations of Mesa Verde Tree-Ring Series. In Contributions of the Wethrill Mesa Archaeological Project, assembled by Douglas Osborne, pp. 101–121. Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology 19.Google Scholar
Fuller, S.L. 1984 Cultural Resource Inventory of the Aneth Road Corridor BIA Route UMU 201, Ute Mountain Ute Reservation Montezuma County, Colorado. Complete Archaeological Services Associates, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Fuller, S.L. 1988a Cultural Resources Inventory for the Dolores Project: The Ute Irrigated Lands Survey. Four Corners Archaeological Project Report No. 13. Complete Archaeological Services Associates, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Fuller, S.L. 1988b Archaeological Investigations in the Bodo Canyon Area La Plata County, Colorado. UMTRA Archaeological Report 25. Complete Archaeological Services Associates, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Fuller, S.L. 1989 An Archaeological Survey of the Ute Irrigated Lands Project, Tract C, Ute Mountain Ute Indian Reservation, Montezuma County, Colorado. LAC Report No. 8975. La Plata Archaeological Consultants, Dolores, Colorado.Google Scholar
Graf, W.L. 1983 The Arroyo Problem—Paleohydrology and Paleohydraulics in the Short Term. In Background to Paleohydrology, edited by Gregory, K.J., pp. 279–302. John Wiley and Sons, New York.Google Scholar
Graf, W.L., Hereford, R., Laity, J., and Young, R.A. 1987 Colorado Plateau. In Geomorphic Systems of North America, edited by Graf, W.L., pp. 259–302. Centennial Special Volume 2. Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado.Google Scholar
Haas, J. and Creamer, W. 1993 Stress and Warfare Among the Kayenta Anasazi of the Thirteenth Century A.D. Fieldiana Anthropology, new series, no.21. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.Google Scholar
Hack, J.T. 1942 The Changing Physical Environment of the Hopi Indians of Arizona. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 35. Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hall, S.A. 1977 Late Quaternary Sedimentation and Paleoecologic History of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. Geological Society of America Bulletin 88: 1593–1618.Google Scholar
Hayes, A. C, Brugge, D. M., and Judge, W. J. 1991 Archaeological Surveys of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. Publications in Archaeology 18a, Chaco Canyon Studies, National Park Service, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Haynes, C.V., Jr. 1968 Geochronology of Late-Quaternary alluvium. In Means of Correlation of Quaternary Successions; Proceedings 7th INQUA Congress, edited by Morrison, R. B. & Wright, H. E., pp. 591–631. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Huckleberry, G.A. 1989 Geomorphology, Pedology, and Stratigraphy Along Bureau of Indian Affairs Routes 30 and 31, McKinley County, New Mexico. Soil Systems Technical Report No. 89-20. Soil Systems, Inc., Phoenix.Google Scholar
Huckleberry, G.A. 1993 Surficial Geology of the Superstition Mountain Piedmont Area, Northern Pinal and Eastern Maricopa Counties, Arizona. Arizona Geological Survey Open-File Report 93-15. Arizona Geological Survey, Tucson.Google Scholar
Huckleberry, G.A. 1995 Archaeological Implications of Late-Holocene Channel Changes on the Middle Gila River, Arizona. Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 10: 159–182.Google Scholar
Huckleberry, G.A. 1998 Fluvial Geomorphology and Stratigraphy on the Southern Piedmont of Sleeping Ute Mountain, Colorado, and Their Implications for Anasazi Settlement. In The Puehloan Occupation of the Ute Mountain Piedmont: Environmental and Bioarchaeological Studies, edited by Billman, B. R., (in press). Soil Systems Publications in Archaeology No. 22, Vol. 5. Soil Systems, Inc., Phoenix.Google Scholar
Huntington, E. 1914 The Climate Factor as Illustrated in Arid America. Carnegie Institution ofWashington Publication 192.Google Scholar
Kane, Allen E. 1986 Prehistory of the Dolores River Valley. In Dolores Archaeological Program: Final Synthetic Report, compiled by Breternitz, D. A., Robinson, C. K., and Gross, G. T., pp. 353–138. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Karlstrom, E.T. and Karlstrom, T.N.V. 1986 Late Quaternary Alluvial Stratigraphy and Soils of the Black Mesa-Little Colorado River Areas, Northeastern Arizona. In Field Trip Guidebook for Geological Society of America Rocky Mountain Section Meeting, Flagstaff, Arizona, edited by Nations, J.D., Conway, C.M., and Swann, G.A., pp. 71–92.Google Scholar
Karlstrom, E.T. and Karlstrom, T.N.V. 1987 Late Quaternary Alluvial History of the American West: Toward a Process Paradigm. Geology 15: 88–89.Google Scholar
Karlstrom, T.N.V. 1988 Alluvial Chronology and Hydrologic Change of Black Mesa and Nearby Regions. In The Anasazi in a Changing Environment, edited by Gumerman, G. J., pp. 45–91. Cambridge University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Knighton, D. 1984 Fluvial Forms and Processes. Edward Arnold, London.Google Scholar
Knox, J. C. 1983 Responses of River Systems to Holocene Climates. In Late Quaternary Environments of the United States, Vol 2: The Holocene, edited by Wright, H.E., Jr., pp. 2d-A\. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Kohler, T. A. 1992 Prehistoric Human Impact on the Environment in the Upland North American Southwest. Population and Environment: A Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies 13: 255–268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohler, T. A. 1988 Long-Term Anasazi Land Use and Forest Reduction: A Case Study from Southwest Colorado. American Antiquity 53: 537–564.Google Scholar
Kottlowski, F., Cooley, M.E., and Ruhe, R. 1965 Quaternary Geology of the Southwest. In The Quaternary of the United States, edited by Wright, H.E. and Frey, D.G., pp. 287–298. Princeton University Press, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Lambert, P. M. 1997 Cannibalism in Cowboy Wash, Part 3: The Osteological Evidence. Paper presented at the 62nd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Nashville.Google Scholar
Lambert, P. M. 1998 Human Remains. In The Puebloan Occupation of the Ute Mountain Piedmont: Environmental and Bioarchaeological Studies, edited by Billman, B. R. (in press). Soil Systems Publications in Archaeology No. 22, Vol. 5. Soil Systems, Inc., Phoenix.Google Scholar
Langbein, W.B., Schumm, S.A. 1958 Yield of Sediment in Relation to Mean Annual Precipitation. Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 39: 1076–84.Google Scholar
Leonard, B.L. 1997 Cannibalism in Cowboy Wash, Part 1: The Archaeology of 5MT10010. Paper presented at the 62nd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Nashville.Google Scholar
Leonard, B.L., MacAndrews, K., and Lambert, P.M. 1998 Site 5MT10010. In The Puebloan Period Occupation of the Ute Mountain Piedmont: Late Pueblo II-Early Pueblo III, Early Pueblo III, and Late Pueblo HI Habitation Sites, edited by Billman, Brian R.. In press. Soil Systems Publications in Archaeology No. 22, Vol. 3. Soil Systems, Inc., Phoenix.Google Scholar
Leopold, L.B. 1951 Rainfall Frequency: An Aspect of Climatic Variation. Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 32: 347–357.Google Scholar
Leopold, L.B., and Snyder, C. T. 1951 Alluvial Fills Near Gallup, New Mexico. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1110-A. U.S. Government Printing Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Lightfoot, R. R. and Kuckelman, K. A. 1995 Ancestral Pueblo Violence in the Northern Southwest. Paper presented at the 60th Annual Meeting of the Society of American Archaeology, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Lipe, W.D. (editor) 1992 The Sand Canyon Archaeological Project. Occasional Paper No. 2. Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Lipe, W. D. 1995 The Depopulation of the Northern San Juan: Conditions in the Turbulent 1200s. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 14: 143–169.Google Scholar
Love, D.W. 1979 Quaternary Fluvial Gemorphic Adjustments in Chaco Canyon. In Adjustments of the Fluvial System, edited by D.D. Rhodes and G.P. Williams, pp. 277–308. Kendall-Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa.Google Scholar
Love, D.W. 1983 Summary of the Late Cenozoic Geomorphic and Depositional History of Chaco Canyon. In Chaco Canyon Country, edited by Wells, S.G., Love, D.W., and Gardner, T.W., pp. 187-194, American Geomorphological Field Group, 1983 Field Trip Guidebook.Google Scholar
Lowe, C.H. 1964 Arizona's Natural Environment. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
McFadden, L.D. and McAuliffe, J.R. 1997 Lithologically Influenced Geomorphic Responses to Holocene Climate Changes in the Southern Colorado Plateau, Arizona: A Soil Geomorphic and Ecologic Perspective. Geomorphology 19: 303–332.Google Scholar
Martin, P.S. 1963 The Last 10,000 Years: A Fossil Pollen Record of the American Southwest. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Masse, W.B. 1991 The Hohokam Quest for Sufficiency and Civilization in the Sonoran Desert. In Chaco and Hohokam: Prehistoric Regional Systems in the American Southwest, edited by Crown, P.L. and Judge, W.J., pp. 195–224. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Nabhan, G.P. 1986 ‘Ak-cin “Arroyo Mouth” and the Environmental Setting of the Papago Indian Fields in the Sonoran Desert. Applied Geography 6: 61–75.Google Scholar
Nials, R, Gregory, D., Graybill, D. 1989 Salt River Streamflow and Hohokam Irrigation Systems. In The 1982-1984 Excavations at Las Colinas. Arizona State Museum Archaeological Series 162, pp. 59–78. Tucson.Google Scholar
Oviatt, C.G. 1985 Late Quaternary Geomorphic Changes along the San Juan River and Its Tributaries Near Bluff, Utah. In Contributions to Quaternary Geology of the Colorado Plateau, pp. 33–47. Utah Geological and Mineral Survey Special Studies 64.Google Scholar
Packard, F. 1974 The Hydraulic Geometry of a Discontinuous Ephemeral Stream on a Bajada Near Tucson, Arizona. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, Tucson.Google Scholar
Patton, PC. and Schumm, S.A. 1981 Ephemeral Stream Processes; Implications for the Studies of Quaternary Valley Fills. Quaternary Research 15: 24–13.Google Scholar
Petersen, K.L. 1986 Climatic Reconstruction for the Dolores Project. In Dolores Archaeological Program: Final Synthetic Report, compiled by Breternitz, D.A., Robinson, C.K., and Gross, G.T., pp. 311–325. Bureau of Reclamation, Engineering and Research Center, Denver.Google Scholar
Petersen, K.L. 1988 Climate and the Dolores River Anasazi: A Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction from a 10,000-Year Pollen Record, La Plata Mountains, Southwestern Colorado. University of Utah Anthropological Papers 113. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Petersen, K.L. 1988 Selected Properties, Distribution, Source, and Age of Eolian Deposits and Soils of Southwestern Colorado. Soil Science Society of America Journal 52: 450–455.Google Scholar
Schiffer, M.B. 1986 Radiocarbon Dating and the “Old Wood” Problem: The Case of the Hohokam Chronology. Journal of Archaeological Science 13: 13–30.Google Scholar
Schlanger, S. 1988 Patterns of Population Movement and Long-Term Population Growth in Southwestern Colorado. American Antiquity 53: 773–793.Google Scholar
Schumm, S.A. 1977 The Fluvial System. John Wiley and Sons, New York.Google Scholar
Schumm, S.A. 1991 To Interpret the Earth; Ten Ways to Be Wrong. Cambridge University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Schumm, S. A. Hadley, R. 1957 Arroyos and the Semiarid Cycle of Erosion. American Journal of Science 255: 161–174.Google Scholar
Schumm, S. A. Parker, R.S. 1973 Implications of Complex Response of Drainage Systems for Quaternary Alluvial Stratigraphy. Nature 243: 99–100.Google Scholar
Sebastian, L. 1992 The Chaco Anasazi: Sociopolitical Evolution in the Prehistoric Southwest. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Stuiver, M., Long, A., Kra, R.S., and Devine, J.M. 1993 Calibration - 1993. Radiocarbon 35(1).Google Scholar
Stuiver, M., Long, A., Kra, R.S., and Devine, J.M. 1942 Climate and Accelerated Erosion in the Arid and Semi-Arid Southwest with Special Reference to the Polacca Wash Drainage Basin, Arizona. United States Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin No. 808.Google Scholar
Upham, S. 1984 Adaptive Diversity and Southwestern Abandonment. Journal of Anthropological Research 40: 83–110.Google Scholar
Van West, C.R. 1994 Modeling Prehistoric Agricultural Productivity in Southwestern Colorado: A GIS Approach. Reports of Investigations 67. Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman, and Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, Colorado.Google Scholar
Vivian, R.G. 1974 Conservation and Diversion: Water-Control Systems in the Anasazi Southwest. In Irrigation's Impact on Society, edited by Downing, T. and Gibson, Mc G., pp. 95–112. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona, no. 25. Arizona State Museum, Tucson.Google Scholar
Vivian, R.G. 1991 Chacoan Subsistence. In Chaco and Hohokam: Prehistoric Regional Systems in the American Southwest, edited by Crown, P.L. and Judge, W.J., pp. 57–75. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Walkenhorst, R. and N.S. Hammack, 1989 Cultural Resource Inventories for the Dolores Project: Towaoc Canal Reach III, Ute Mountain Ute Indian Reservation, Montezuma County, Colorado. Four Corners Archaeological Project Report 11. Complete Archaeological Services Associates, Cortez.Google Scholar
Waters, M.R 1988 The Impact of Fluvial Processes and Landscape Evolution on Archaeological Sites and Settlement Patterns along the San Xavier Reach of the Santa Cruz River, Arizona. Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 3: 205–219.Google Scholar
Waters, M.R 1991 The Geoarchaeology of Gullies and Arroyos in Southern Arizona. Journal of Field Archaeology 18: 141–159.Google Scholar
Waters, M.R 1992 Principles of Geoarchaeology; A North American Perspective. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Waters, M.R 1986 Geomorphic Analysis of Hohokam Settlement Patterns on Alluvial Fans along the Western Flank of the Tortolita Mountains, Arizona. Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 1: 329–346.Google Scholar
Webb, R.H. 1985 Late Holocene Flooding on the Escalante River, South Central Utah. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, Tucson.Google Scholar
Wilshusen, R. H. 1991 Early Vilkages in the American Southwest: Cross-cultural and Archaeological Perspectives. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Colorado, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Wilshusen, R. H. 1995 The Cedar Hill Special Treatment Project Late” Pueblo I, Early Navajo, and Historic Occupations in Northeast New Mexico. La Plata Archaeological Consultants, Research Papers No. 1, Dolores, Colorado.Google Scholar
Wommack, W.R. and Schumm, S. A. 1977 Terraces of Douglas Creek, Northwestern Colorado: An Example of Episodic Erosion. Geology 5: 72–76.Google Scholar