Index

Judy Fudge

doi:10.1017/9781108562058.015

Index

abolition of the slave trade. See also Wilberforce, William, See also Slave Trade Act 1807 (UK)

bicentenaries, 43, 148, 150–151, 211

Britain’s role in, 161, 195, 199, 211

Abu Dhabi, Emirate of, 30

Afghanistan, 51, 158

Africa, 1, 43, 50, See also Eritrea, See also Nigeria, See also West Africa

Albania, 192

Allain, Jean, 47

Alliance 8.7, 92–93

All-Party Parliamentary Group (UK), 165, 173, 175, 178–180

Amnesty International, 20, 125, 149

Amsterdam Treaty 1997, 102, 106, 135

Anglosphere, 101, 188

antislavery governance network. See global antislavery governance network

Anti-Slavery International, 47, 60, 124–125, 143, 149, 158

antislavery organisations, 44–45

antislavery rhetoric, 4

Anti-Trafficking Monitoring Group (ATMG), 156–157, 170

antitrafficking, a moral crusade, 150–160

antitrafficking organisations, 35

Arkless, David, 176

Asia, 51, 73, See also Bangladesh, See also Rana Plaza collapse, See also China

Asia-Pacific region, 52, 57

assemblage, 7–8

asylum, 135–136, 143, 156, 172

Asylum and Immigration Act 2004 (UK), 143, 158

Immigration, Asylum and Nationalities Act 2006 (UK), 147–149

Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 (UK), 142

asylum seekers, 136, 162, 191, 197–198

austerity, 166, 168, 196, 215

Australia, 42, 51, 54, 59

C. de Baca, Luis, 32

Bahrain, Kingdom of, 206

Bales, Kevin, 44, 47–48, 52–53, 79, 100, 195, 208

Bali Process Government and Business Forum, 52

Bangladesh, 87, 121

Bauder, Harald, 218

Bellagio-Harvard Guidelines on the Legal Parameters of Slavery (Allain ed.), 48, 100

Bernards, Nick, 215

Beutin, Lyndsey, 5

Biden, Joe, 36–37

Biden administration, 36–38, 94

biopower, 133, 160

Blair, Tony, 133, 135, 146–147, 153

Blunkett, David, 131, 139

bonded labour, 72, 77

borders,

Controlling Our Borders: Making Migration Work for Britain (UK Home Office), 146

demarcating the inside and outside of the EU, 129

fortifying the US’s, 205

guises of, 131–132, 218

jurisdiction and, 10–12

management of, 210

movement and, 128

Nationality and Borders Act 2022 (UK), 196

othering and, 13

Schengen Agreement, 128, 132

sovereignty and, 58, 161–162, 214

‘Take Back Control’ slogan, 166, 168

territoriality, 11, 21–22

United Kingdom and, 135, 145, 152, 157

Borders Act 2007 (UK), 152, 157

Bradley, Karen, 178

Braverman, Suella, 197–198, 214

Brexit, 166–169

British exceptionalism, 167, 169

British radicalism, 166

British sovereignty, 132, 161–162, 166–169, 211–212

Brown, Gordon, 133, 153, 162

Bruggeman, Jean, 35

Brussels Declaration on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Human Beings, 110

Bulgaria, 146

Bunting, Annie, 3–4

Bush (G. W.) administration, 25–26, 45, 76, 155, 205, 209

Bush, George W., 13, 24

Butler-Sloss, Elizabeth, 175–176

Cameron, David, 167–169, 179, 182

Canada, 2, 36, 63, 101

capitalism, 6, 12, 71, 203–204, 218–219, See also neoliberal capitalism, See also global capitalism, See also philanthrocapitalism

carceral feminists, 18

Catholic Church, 45, 47, 52, 125, 178–179

Centre for Social Justice, 174–176, 182, 195

It Happens Here, 174–175

A Modern Approach to Slavery, 182

chattel slavery, 2, 46, 53

child labour. See also children, See also child trafficking

Alliance 8.7 report 2019, 93

in the Asia Pacific region, 52

Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work 1998 (ILO), 71

gangmasters and, 145

International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (ILO), 74

proposed cuts to US agencies countering, 34

UN Sustainable Development Goals, target 8.7, 39, 51

child trafficking, 37, See also children, See also child labour

Clinton administration’s policies, 17

criminal law and, 15

cross-border movement and, 101

for domestic service, 143

human rights of victims, 28, 111

International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children, 18

media portrayals of, 25

children. See also child labour

county lines and, 191

Modern Slavery Bill, 177

sexual abuse of, 190

sexual exploitation of, 25–26, 93, 111

in slavery-like practices, 49

statistics on victims, 33, 75, 104

China, 69–70, 157

Christian abolitionists, 46, 179, See also Catholic Church

Christian charities, 155

Christian evangelicals, 19, 44–45, 165–166, 171

Christian philanthropy, 41

Christianity, 166, 173, 175, See also Catholic Church

Chuang, Janie, 20, 23, 208

Clark, Charles, 146

Clinton administration, 17, 23

Coalition Against Trafficking in Women, 19, 76, 103

coercion against undesirable migrants, 146

cannabis cultivation, 191

The Cost of Coercion (ILO), 74

discrimination and, 203

forced labour and, 76–77

free labour and, 216

human trafficking and, 19–20, 103, 139–140, 209

labour exploitation, 180, 184

labour trafficking in UK, 143

legal terms, 209

by the military, 75

Modern Slavery Bill and, 176–177

prostitution and, 76, 138

sexual exploitation, 200

colonialism, 83, 208, 218–219

Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations (CEACR), 29, 76–77

Conference of Parties, 27–28

Connarty, Michael, 173, 176

consent: forced labour and, 97

human trafficking and, 19

illegal migration and, 108

prostitution and, 18–19, 25

as regulative ideal, 217

relevance of, 20

severe labour exploitation, 119

Conservative Party (UK) 2010 campaign promise, 162

crack down on exploitation, 182

Eurosceptic faction, 134, 167–168, 173

on migrants’ use of public services, 168

on UK’s modern slavery strategy, 189, 195, 197

contemporary globalism, 6, 218

Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and, 14, 27

Convention for the Abolition of Slavery 1926, 47–48

Coroners and Justice Act 2009 (UK), 160

Council of Europe, 100–102, 111, 155

Council of Europe Convention on Action Against Human Trafficking, See also United Kingdom

All-Party Parliamentary Group (UK) and, 165

compelling circumstance test, 193

demand centred approach to trafficking, 152

gateway to assistance and protection, 111–114

human rights protection, 213

knowledge of exploitation in relation to prostitution, 154

reflection periods, 149–150, 156, 196

United Kingdom not meeting its commitments under, 156

UK’s need to enforce its prohibition against labour trafficking, 158

United Kingdom’s ratification of, 149–150, 156, 160

United Kingdom’s reluctance to sign, 148

United Kingdom’s signing of, 149, 165

victim protection, 113, 116

victim’s rights and, 114

Council of the European Union, 101, 109

county lines, 191–192

criminal law: concerns about prostitution and migration, 18

Directive 2011/36/EU, 116–118

human rights, 114

human trafficking and, 38

indicators of governmental progress and, 51

labour exploitation and modern slavery and, 174

‘rescuing’ women and girls from prostitution, 18

sexual exploitation, 15, 115

criminalisation of forced labour and domestic servitude, 114, 159

of human trafficking, 171

of prostitution, 77, 106, 153–155, 179, 210

critical political-economy, 42, 60

Crown Prosecution Service, 158

cultural political economy, 8, 161, 166, 210, 212–213

Davies, Nick, 154–155

debt bondage, 5, 49–50, 77, 85

decent work A Blueprint for Mobilizing Finance against Slavery and Trafficking (FAST), 54

alliance building, 87–90, 94

the G 20, 206

global supply chains and, 55, 98

UN Sustainable Development Goals, target 8.7, 39, 54, 125

Decent Work in Supply Chains (ILO), 87

democracy, 203

Denmark, 108

Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (UK), 144, 149

discrimination, freedom from, 71

Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, 32, 34

domestic servitude, 73, 114, 142–143, 158–159, 172, 174–175, 190

domestic workers, 97, 142–144, 181, 185

Duncan–Smith, Iain, 47, 175

economic exploitation, 44, 75

economic globalisation, 133, 201

economic liberalisation, 71, 73

economic liberalism, 133, See also neoliberalism, See also international economic liberalisation

embedded liberalism, 69–70

Employers’ Group decent work in supply chains, 88–90

Fair Recruitment Initiative and, 85–86

IOE and, 69

reluctance to endorse binding labour standard, 70

resistance to new due diligence standards, 67–68, 80–82, 93–94

on transnational labour standards for supply chains, 84, 86, 89–92

employment and labour law, 36, 145, 150, 184

England, 177–180

Eriksson, Marianne, 105

Eritrea, 51, 208

ethical-business alliance, 48, 55–60, 173, 206, 208

ethico-managerial strategy, 60

EU Framework Decision on Human Trafficking 2002, 106–107, 139, 143–144

Eurofound, 120

European Commission, 78, 99, 112

corporate sustainability due diligence, 126

European Labour Authority created, 121

Experts Group on Trafficking in Human Beings 2004, 110–111, 130

Experts Group on Trafficking in Human Beings 2008, 116

role in European Union, 101

unhappiness with 2011 antitrafficking directive, 118

victim-oriented human rights approach to trafficking, 114

European Convention on Human Rights: Article 4 incorporation in UK Legal instruments, 143, 160, 179

criminalisation of forced labour and domestic servitude, 114, 159

protection of illegal migrants’ rights, 214

rights of victims of modern slavery, 198

United Kingdom’s Coroners and Justice Act 2009 and,160

European Court of Human Rights 2012–2016 antitrafficking strategy, 117–118

approach to addressing human trafficking, 99–102, 110–111

border management, 107

Brexit, 166–169

competence over criminal and immigration matters, 104

defining exploitation, 107

defining scope of slavery, 121, 159

Directive 2011/36/EU, 116–118, 123–125, 127

European Union and, 100–102

human rights due diligence, 62, 94, 125–128

jurisdiction, 101

protection of victims’ rights, 107–108

relationship with UK, 134–135, 166, 170

Residence Permit Directive, 107–109, 113, 117, 150

on sex work as exploitative or form of labour, 209

Siliadin v. France, 114

on supply chain governance, 88

United State’s antitrafficking regime and, 75

European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 115, 119–121

European Women’s Lobby, 103

Eurosceptics, 134, 167–168, 173, 215

Ewins, James, 176, 181, 185

exploitation. See also labour exploitation, See also sexual exploitation, See also economic exploitation

defined in Britain and Wales, 143

defined in European Convention on Human Rights, 143

defined in the Trafficking Protocol, 19–20, 209

described not defined, 136

EU’s definition, 107

involuntary servitude and, 24

most commonly reported forms of, 192

the ‘no name’ problem, 119

smuggling and, 142

types experienced by migrant workers, 144

types of covered by modern slavery, 5

victim’s consent and, 19–20, 119, 136

exploitation creep, 208

Fair Recruitment Initiative, 85, 90–92

faith-based groups, 44–45, 52, 164, 171, 173, 176, 178–179, 211, See also Catholic Church, See also Christianity, See also Christian evangelicals

feminism, 19, 103, See also women’s rights

feudalism, agrarian, 73

Field, Frank, 164, 175, 178, 180, 193

Finance Against Slavery and Trafficking (FAST), 53–55

A Blueprint for Mobilizing Finance against Slavery and Trafficking, 54

forced labour. See also labour exploitation

building a global alliance, 87

causes of, 75–76

coercion and, 76–78, 152

‘consent’ to, 119

The Cost of Coercion (ILO), 74

cross-border migration and, 79

Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work (1998), 71

defining, 66, 75, 77, 81, 152

the economic cost of, 77, 79

in European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR), 143

Global Alliance against Forced Labour (ILO), 74

governance of, 68

import bans, 37, 63–64

indicators of forced labour, 78, 159

labour market approach to, 79

labour market regulation, 30

labour market structures, 29

labour trafficking and, 80

military coercion and, 75

obligation to take preventative measures, 121–122

part of modern slavery, 46

resources for prevention vs prosecution, 78, 81

statistics on, 1, 29, 75, 78

‘Tackling Exploitation in the Labour Market’, 184

traditional and ‘modern’ forms of, 72

transnational recruiters, 84–86

in the UN Protocol, 19–20

unfree labour and, 2

in the United States, 33–35, 37

victim protection, 81, 83–84

visas and, 36

Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (ILO),66, 81, See also Protocol of 2014 to the Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (ILO)

forced marriage, 1, 93, 128

Forrest, Andrew, 41, 48, 52, 54, 57–58, 60, 188

Forrest, Grace, 206

Forrest, Nicola, 41

Foucault, Michel, 2, 57, 133, 160

France, 125

Francis (pope), 52

free labour, 216–219

freedom, legal conception of, 53, 216

Freedom Network, 35

freedom of association, 64, 69, 71, 83, 91, 95

freedoms, conception of, 216–217

G20 countries, 55–57, 62, 93

Gangmasters (Licensing) Bill (UK), 144–145

Gangmasters Labour Abuse Authority (UK), 185–187, 197, 201

Gangmasters Licencing Authority (UK), 149, 158, 171, 174, 176–178, 181, 183–185

gangs, trope of, 13, 16, 35

Geddes, Andrew, 133

gender, 209, See also sex workers’ rights, See also women’s rights, See also feminism

Council of Europe’s Steering Committee for Equality between Men and Women, 112

equality in trafficking protection and prevention, 113

forced economic exploitation, 75

human trafficking, 13–15, 18, 24–26, 28, 35, 111

labour exploitation, 15, 38

modern slavery as problem, 46

occupations vulnerable to trafficking, 142

Pentameter 2 (UK prostitution), 155

prostitution (sale of sexual services), 103–105, 209–210

prostitution equated with human trafficking, 140

racialising, 210

sex trafficking, 104, 106

sexual exploitation, 15, 25, 35, 38, 75, 99, 111

using the Victorian concept of trafficking, 130

Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 (US), 23

violence against women, 153

gender equality, 102–103, 113, 115, 129

Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women (GAATW), 19

global antislavery governance network, 7–8, See also Walk Free Foundation (Walk Free), See also new abolitionists

approach compared to EU’s, 100

beginning of, 43–44

cultural political economy of, 212

data analysis by, 204

faith-based groups in, 44–45, 178–179

global capitalism and unfree labour, 204

Global Slavery Index, 43–44, 56

ILO, 79, 92

United Kingdom and, 164, 186–189

Global Britain, 164, 169, 195

global capitalism, 12, 42, 59–62, 95, 203–204

Global Estimates of Modern Slavery (GEMS), 50, 92–93, 208, 217

Global Initiative Against Trafficking (UN.GIFT), 30

global moral order, 208

Global Slavery Index (GSI). See also Walk Free Foundation (Walk Free), See also statistics

2013 index, 48–49

2016 index, 49

2017 index, 50

2018 index, 41, 57

2023 index, 61–64

Bales and, 44, 48

descriptions of modern slavery and slavery-like practices, 48–49

extend labour rights to all without exception, 63–64

ILO and Walk Free Foundation, 50

measuring modern slavery, 49–50, 93

neoliberal ethics and, 59

recommendations on human rights due diligence, 62

relationship of wealthier countries to lower-income countries, 61

supply chains governance, 57

Vulnerability Model as ‘official’ statistics, 50

globalisation. See also neoliberal globalisation, See also contemporary globalism

anxieties caused by, 13, 129

criminal activities and, 14, 205, 207

forced labour and, 95

managing adverse consequences of, 55

modern slavery and, 204

relationship to human trafficking, 13–14, 73

sovereignty and, 11

Governing Body (GB), 69, 74, 76, 80–81, 84, 86, 89, 94

Gradin, Anita, 104–105

Greece, 121

Green, Damien, 152

Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings, 113, 121, 160

Halliday, Terrance, 7

Hansenne, Michel, 71

Hartman, Harriet, 153

Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary, Fire Rescue Services (HMICFRS), 189

Hill, Angela, 154–156

Hill, Fiona, 175–176, 182

holistic approach, See also United Kingdom, See also borders

the holistic approach, 115–117

the holistic approach: to human trafficking, 15–16

the holistic approach: ILO’s proposed, 73, 85

the holistic approach: of European Union, 99

the holistic approach: Expert’s Group, 110, 115

the holistic approach: TIP Reports, 33

Hollobone, Philip, 153

hostile environment policy (UK), 147, 166, 172, 182, 183, 199, 201n

Houngbo, Gilbert, 94

human rights. See also human rights due diligence, See also victims’ rights, See also women’s rights

carceral approach to governance, 111–113, 201

Council of Europe, 100, 129

criminal law and, 18, 109, 111, 114

dismantling state action through, 213

expanding the trafficking framing, 43–44

forced labour and domestic servitude, 158–159

freedom from human trafficking, 3

hierarchy of victims and, 26

human trafficking as issue of, 39

MNE and, 91

protections of, 83–84

sex workers rights, 105

supply chains and, 123

of trafficked persons, 20–21, 99

United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, 55–56, 62, 90–91, 94, 205

human rights due diligence. See also supply chains, See also human rights

compared to import bans, 63–64

effect of mandatory disclosure, 58–59

EU’s commitment to, 102

legislation, 42

mandatory, 62, 218

obligations of, 125

procedures in MNE, 91

United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, 55–56

human smuggling. See also United Nations Smuggling Protocol

human trafficking and, 21–22, 28, 122, 136, 140, 142

migrants compared to victims of trafficking, 21–22, 28–29, 108

protections afforded to smuggled migrants, 38

human trafficking, 20, See also modern slavery, See also victims, human trafficking, See also Trafficking in Persons (TIP) regime (US), See also forced marriage

carceral approach to, 36, 109, 118, 146, 149, 163

criminal law and, 14–20

criminalisation of, 171

definitions of, 19–20, 23, 26, 45, 75, 116, 139–140, 208

domestic servitude and, 159

European Union, 99–102, 106–107, 118

forced labour and, 2, 29, 74, 76

holistic approach to, 15–16

illegal migration, 20–22, 26

labour approach to, 36, 122, 148

legal migration as prevention of, 28

movement and, 20, 29, 43, 76, 100, 213

organized crime and, 16–17, 22, 123

prostitution and, 18–20, 24–26, 139

reframed as modern slavery, 31–32

sexual exploitation and, 4, 15, 20, 103–104, 137

“three and four P approach”, 23, 30

US approach to, 13, 17, 23–26, 33–37, 76

victim-oriented human rights approach to, 114–116

women’s rights organizations and, 18–19

Hyland, Kevin, 179, 189

Illegal Migration Act 2023 (UK), 214

immigration. See also United Kingdom Independent Party, See also borders

Amsterdam Treaty, 135

British antitrafficking policy and strategy, 131, 156

British sovereignty and, 132

identification of potential victims, 191

Maastricht Treaty (1992), 134

Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 (UK), 139

Overseas Domestic Worker visa, 172

relationship to modern slavery, 173, 177, 185

reporting of abuses by victims, 122

reporting of immigration status, 183

Schengen Agreement, 134–135

United Kingdom and devolution, 134

United Kingdom’s policy, 136, 167

Immigration Act 2014 (UK), 166, 172, 183

Immigration Act 2016 (UK), 166, 172, 182–187

Immigration, Asylum and Nationalities Act 2006 (UK), 147–149

imperialism, 139

import bans on goods made with forced labour, 33–35, 37, 63–64, 127–128, 218

instrumental supranationalism, 134

Inter-Agency Coordination Group against Trafficking in Persons, 30

International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children, 18

international economic liberalisation, 69, See also economic liberalism

International Labour Conference (ILC),See also Protocol of 2014 to the Forced Labour Convention 1930 (ILO), See also Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (ILO)

approach to human trafficking, 72

decent work and supply chains (2016 ILC), 89, 94

due diligence procedures (2014 ILC), 87–88

due diligence procedures (2016 ILC), 89–90

Employer’s Group and, 88

Employer’s Group protestations (2012 ILC), 80

Fair Recruitment Initiative (FRI) launched (2014 ILC), 85

International Labour Organization (ILO) and, 68

question of new governance mechanism (2016 ILC), 89

International Labour Organization (ILO), 72–73, 79, See also Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations (CEACR)

overview, 29, 68–69

approach to human trafficking, 27, 29

approach to sexual exploitation, 66

the authority of, 68, 71, 74, 78–79, 92

The Cost of Coercion (2009), 74, 77–78

criticism of the United Kingdom, 149

Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work (1998), 71

endorsement of Global Fund to End Modern Slavery, 53

forced labour and, 74

Global Alliance against Forced Labour (2005), 73–76

Global Estimates of Modern Slavery, 92–93

governance approach called into question, 64–71

the Governing Body (GB), 68

Hard to See, Harder to Count (2012), 79

human rights due diligence and, 62

indicators of forced labour, 78, 149, 159

International Labour Conference and, 68

International Labour Office and, 69–70

International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC), 74

on the label of ‘trafficking’, 74

labour market approach, 77–79, 86–87, 212

measuring modern slavery, 49–50, 92

new governance scale needed, 86–87, 214–215

new standard for forced labour, 80–82

relationship with Global Slavery Index, 50

relationship with Walk Free, 92

on scope of forced labour, 65

on sex work as form of labour, 66

stance on sale of sexual services, 73

structure of, 68–70

international law, 18, 207, See also transnational modern slavery law, See also international trade law and policy

International Organization for Migration (IOM), 20, 27–28, 49–50, 79, 109

International Organization of Employers (IOE), 69, 85–86, 91, 98

International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC), 84

international trade law and policy, 6, 11, See also international law

International Trade Union Confederation, 69, 80, 85

investment law, 11

Ireland, 108

Jenrick, Robert, 198

Johnson administration, 195–197

Johnson, Boris, 194–195, 197

jurisdiction, 9–11, See also legal domains

assemblage of, 9–10, 16, 46, 98, 101, 130, 211–212

institutional, 215

overlapping, 212–213

scalar dimension of, 9–10, 211, 214–215

sexual and labour exploitation, 27, 66

Kahn-Freund, Otto, 203

Kelly, Liz, 137–139, 141

Kerry, John, 33

labour exploitation, 192, See also forced labour

absence of common understanding of, 118–119, 151

campaign to make it a crime, 143

demand and, 118, 147

EU’s treatment of, 100

illegal working and, 142, 149

migrant domestic workers, 142

migration status and, 120

Modern Slavery Act 2015 (UK) and, 181

‘particularly exploitative working conditions’ defined, 120

reports of, 192

labour law, regulatory techniques, 84

labour market exploitation, 149, 182

labour migration, 84–85, 91, 96, 111

labour trafficking, 72, 75, 130, 143, 152

League of Nations, 18, 66

legal domains, 3–4, 15–16, 33–34, 211, See also jurisdiction

Liechtenstein Initiative, 54

Longo, Matthew, 1, 99

Maastricht Treaty 1992102, 104, 134

Mandelson, Peter, 136

market failure, 53–54, 58–59, 203

market failure approach, 60–62

Marx, Karl, 216

Mauritania, 51

May, Theresa, See also hostile environment policy (UK)

cultivation of faith-based antislavery coalition, 164, 178

on defeating modern slavery, 164–165

governance agenda of, 186–189, 198–201

Human Trafficking: The Government’s Strategy, 170

on Illegal Immigration Bill, 198

launch of Global Commission on Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking, 206–208

Modern Day Slavery Bill, 177

political legacy of, 166, 195

restricting immigration streams, 172

Metcalfe, David, 186

Mexico, 13, 63

Middle East, 50

migrant domestic workers, 142–143, 174

migrant sex workers, 108–109, 138–139, 142, 155, 213

migrant women, 140

migration, 14, 46, 121–123, 188

Miller, Maria, 190

Mills, James, 216

MNE (Tripartite Declaration of Principles Concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy). See Tripartite Declaration of Principles Concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy (MNE)

modern slavery. See also victims, modern slavery

defined by Bales, 44

defined by Global Slavery Indesx (GSI), 49

defined by new abolitionists, 46

definitions, other, 47–48, 174

Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy (Bales), 44

economic cost to UK, 190

importance of jurisdiction, 6–7, 9–11

legal concepts that compose, 2

as market failure, 53–54

measuring the problem, 48–51, 53, 79, 92–93, 189–192, 195

the multifaceted approach, 27, 30–31, 39–40, 46–47, 99, 101–102, 130, 208, 212–214

political work performed by the concept of, 4–5

relationship of framing to legal domains, 3–4

as response to market failure, 58–59

statistics on, 1

as true name of human trafficking, 31, 46, 174, 182

types of exploitation covered by, 5, 207

as umbrella term, 79, 208

usage of the term, 100, 165, 173, 199, 211

Modern Slavery Act 2015 (UK)

convictions under, 190

criminal law domain, 177

enforcement of, 184

immigration and, 182, 184, 196

independent review of, 190

Johnson on, 195

labour exploitation and, 181

modern slavery as quasi-legal concept, 3

offences under, 190, 201

sentencing under, 179–180

Sunak on, 199

supply chain transparency, 47, 180–181, 193–195

victim’s rights and, 180

Modern Slavery Bill (UK), 177–178, 181

modern slavery law, 12, 53–54, 205, See also transnational modern slavery law

moral panic, 13–14, 17–18, 103, 139, 155

multiscalar dimension of transnational law, 7

Myanmar, 75

Nail, Thomas, 131

National Audit Office, 189

National Crime Agency (NCA), 170

National Referral Mechanism (NRM)

identification of victims of trafficking, 170, 184, 190

legal aid and, 180

Modern Slavery Bill and, 177, 181, 196

problems with, 189

process of victim identification, 157, 174, 196–197

statistics on referrals, 157

victim protection and, 156, 161, 173

Nationality and Borders Act 2022 (UK), 196

Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 (UK), 139, 142

negative freedom, 216

neoliberal capitalism, 6, 204

neoliberal ethics, 59

neoliberal globalisation, 219

neoliberalism, 41, 68, 70, 134, 205, 216, 219, See also economic liberalism

new abolitionists

assessing EU’s antitrafficking strategy, 100

on Directive 2011/36/EU, 123–125

focus of, 43–44

key countries and legislation, 59

modern slavery defined by, 46, 165, 211

New Labour (UK), Controlling Our Borders: Making Migration Work for Britain (UK Home Office), 146

domestic workers under, 142–144

A Points-Based System, 146

relationship with EU, 134, 161–162

sovereignty, 132, 215

strategy for human trafficking, 131

supernationalism of, 167

working with international law enforcement, 170

New Zealand, 51, 188

Nigeria, 192, 200

North Korea, 51, 208

O’Connell-Davidson, Julia, 12

Obama administration, 38, 79, 88, 118

Obama, Barack, 31–34, 47

Office of Director of Labour Market Enforcement (UK), 184, 186

Office of the High Commission on Human Rights, 27–28

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1, 53, 56, 62, 93

Overseas Domestic Worker visa, 172–173, 176, 181, See also domestic workers, See also migrant domestic workers

Pakistan, 51

Patel, Priti, 196–197

people smuggling. See human smuggling

people trafficking, See human trafficking

philanthrocapitalism, 41–42, 48, 52

Phillips, Nicola, 203

Plant, Roger, 65–66, 71–72, 74, 76–78

positive freedom, 216

prostitution (sale of sexual services), See also under United Kingdom

Bush (G. W.) administration’s stance on, 25–26

Churches Alert to Sex Trafficking Across Europe (Chaste), 155

coercion, 76, 209

conceptions of, 105

criminalisation via national laws, 77, 106, 153–155, 179, 210

demand reduction approach, 147, 152

exploitative sex work vs sex work as form of labour, 19, 209–210

as form of violence against women, 103–105, 153, 209

frames of, 4

Obama administration’s stance on, 31

raid and rescue model, 147, 154, 210

relationship to human trafficking, 16–21, 103

sexual exploitation and, 20, 38, 123, 137

sex-workers sorted according to migrant status, 141

status as employment/occupation, 66, 73

Tackling Demand for Prostitution (UK), 154, See also sex work, See also sex workers’ rights

Treaty of Amsterdam 105–106

US’s ‘prostitution pledge’, 25, 31, 35

Protocol of 2014 to the Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (ILO), 67, 82–83, 90, 96, 2121930 (ILO), See also Forced Labour Convention,

Qatar, 92

Quirk, Joel, 4

race, 14, 51, 183, 209, See also white slavery

racial profiling, 201

Ramos, George, 1

Rana Plaza collapse, 86–87, 89

Rees-Mogg, Jacob, 173

reflection periods, 117, 148–149, 156, 196

Regan, Linda, 137–139, 141

Reid, John, 150

removal action, 151

Renzi, Matteo, 123

Report of the European Experts Group on Trafficking in Human Beings (European Commission), 99

Republican freedom, 216–217

Residence Permit Directive, 107–110, 113, 117, 150

Robinson, Mary, 28

Romania, 146

Ruggie, John, 55, 69

Ryder, Guy, 65, 80, 86–87

Santa Marta Group, 45, 178

Sassen, Saskia, 11

scalar dimension of, 9–10, 211, 214–215

scalar technique of governance, 7–9, 214

Schengen Agreement, 104, 106, 128, 132, 135

Scottish referendum, 167

Sen, Amartya, 216

sex trafficking, 18, 26, 34, 103, 117, See also victims, sex trafficking,

sex work, 73, 138, See also prostitution (sale of sexual services)

sex workers’ rights, 130

sexual exploitation, 129, See also forced labour

demand and, 147

EU’s treatment of, 100, 129–130

measuring the extent of, 138, 192

in Modern Slavery Act 2015 (UK), 180

statistics about, 79

UK’s treatment of, 152

Shaffer, Gregory, 7

Sharapov, Kiril, 8

Sharma, Nandita, 203

slave trade. See also abolition of the slave trade, See also new abolitionists, See also slavery

2015 migration crisis, 123

human trafficking as, 104, 147, 161

prosecution, 182

trafficked migrants as modern version of, 144

transatlantic, 4

Slave Trade Act 1807 (UK), 45, 147, 150–151

slavery, See also abolition of the slave trade, See also white slavery, See also Modern Slavery Act 2015 (UK), See also slave trade

coercion and, 48

consent and, 119

defining, 47

prostitution as form of, 123

trafficking and, 100

slavery-like practices (list), 49, 77

Smith, Adam, 15, 53, 216–217

Smith, Chris, 23

Smith, Jacqui, 153

Somovia, Juan, 74

South America, 51

Southeast Asia, 73

sovereign authority, 42

sovereignty borders, 58, 161–162, 214

British sovereignty, 132, 161–162, 166–169, 211–212

globalisation, 11

reconfigured, 11, 215

territory and, 6, 11

Soviet Union, effect of the collapse of, 14, 16, 71, 75, 102, 145, 205

Special Action Programme to Combat Forced Labour, 65, 74, 78, 84

Special Rapporteur on Trafficking in Persons, 28

statistics, See also Global Slavery Index (GSI)

on forced labour, 1, 29, 75, 78

on forced sexual labour, 75

on labour exploitation, 33

on modern slavery, 1

National Referral Mechanism, 157

on sexual exploitation, 79

on trafficking, 104

Vulnerability Model, 50

Steen, Anthony, 150, 165, 175

Straw, Jack, 138

STRIP. See Special Action Programme to Combat Forced Labour

Sunak, Rishi, 197–198

Sunak administration, 199, 201, 214

supply chain disclosure legislation in UK, 173–174, See also transparency legislation

supply chains. See also human rights due diligence, See also United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (UNGP)

‘conflict minerals’, 32, 127

connection to modern slavery, 43

corporate social responsibility measures, 124–128

decent work in, 87–90

due diligence reporting, 55–58, 123, 180–181, 205

effect of Rana Plaza collapse on governance of, 86–87, 89

human rights and, 123–128

import bans, 127–128, 214

jurisdiction and, 11

lack of ‘trickling down’ gains, 61

mandatory disclosure, 47, 57, 173

MNE and, 90

Modern Slavery Act 2015 (UK), 47, 180–181, 193–195

Obama administration’s approach to, 32–33

onus on consumer countries, 57

potential effect of voluntary disclosure, 57

Trading for Development in the Age of Global Value Chains (World Bank), 61

transnational corporations’ ability to control, 42

true cost of labour, 37, 53

surveillance, 14, 149, 195, 210

Sweden, 103–104, 106, 153

Thomas, Albert, 69–70

Trafficking in Persons (TIP) regime, See also human trafficking

Trafficking in Persons (TIP) regime (US), 26

carceral approach, 35

efficacy of, 27, 38

financial sanctions, 24–26

forced labour for commercial sexual exploitation, 75

ILO and, 79

labour trafficking and, 75

legal domain and, 33–34

TIP reports, 24

trafficking for prostitution, 24–26, 33

trafficking, Victorian concept of trafficking, 130

transatlantic slave trade, 1

transnational corporations, 3, 11, 42, 48, 60–62

transnational modern slavery law, 7, 204, 207, See also international law

transparency legislation. See also supply chain disclosure legislation in UK

beyond modern slavery, 125

California Transparency in Supply Chains Act of 2010, 32, 59

EU’s approach to, 100–101

Ewins and, 175–176

support for, 173, 214

Treaty of Lisbon, 101–102, 114–116, 162

Tripartite Declaration of Principles Concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy (MNE), 90–91, 94, 97–98

Trodd, Zoe, 100

Trump administration, 34–37, 39, 89, 205

Trump, Donald, 13, 35, 37, 205

Trump, Ivanka, 34–35

Truss, Liz, 197

unfree labour, 2, 6–8, 203

United Kingdom. See also Gangmasters Labour Abuse Authority (UK), See also Global Britain, See also immigration, See also asylum, See also Borders Act 2007 (UK), See also Gangmasters (Licensing) Bill (UK)

Action Plan on Trafficking, 45

approach to modern slavery, 8

austerity, 166, 168, 196, 215

border control, 131, 146

carceral approach to human trafficking, 146, 149, 163

Coroners and Justice Act 2009, 160

criminalisation of human trafficking, 171

criminalisation of prostitution, 153–154

devolution, 133–134

Eurozone financial crisis, 165–167

Global Fund to End Modern Slavery and, 52

Home Office, 133

hostile environment policy, 166, 172, 182, 183, 199, 201

Human Rights Act 1998, 143

illegal working and exploitation, 132, 137, 142–144, 146, 161–162, 169

immigration after May 2004, 145

Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group (IDMG) on Human Trafficking, 151, 171

leadership in global antislavery governance, 188, 199, 201, 208

leadership role in addressing human trafficking, 148, 151

new abolitionists, 42

philanthrocapitalism and, 42

ranking of progress on ending modern slavery, 51

Residence Permit Directive, 108

response to deaths of undocumented migrant shellfish harvesters, 144

role global antislavery governance network, 8, 188

Secure Borders, Safe Haven (Blunkett), 131, 136–137

support for supply chain disclosure legislation, 59

support for Walk Free Foundation, 52

Tackling Human Trafficking, 147–149

Tackling the Demand for Prostitution, 152–155

United Kingdom Independent Party, 166–167

United Nations: elimination of modern slavery targets, 1

the multifaceted approach, 27, 30–31, 39–40, 46–47, 99, 101–102, 130, 208, 212–214

sex work as exploitative or form of labour, 209

World Ministerial Conference on Organized Transnational Crime, 17

United Nations Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children, 18, 103

United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (UNGP), 55–56, 62, 90–91, 94, 205

United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC), 28

United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), 20

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNDOC), 17, 27, 30, 39, 48

United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, 17–22

Article 11, 22

Article 3, 84

Article 4, 22

compared to UN Smuggling Protocol, 21–22

in criminal law, 14–15, 37

development of, 17–22

forms of exploitation in, 20

historical context of, 16–17, 205, 207

lack of interpretation mechanism, 76

oversight mechanism, 27

recognition of human rights of victims, 20

relationship to TVPA, 23–24

trafficking in persons defined, 19–20, 38–39

UK adoption of, 144

UK’s role in, 137

victim protection, 100

United Nations Smuggling Protocol, 14, 17, 21–22, 38, See also human smuggling

United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, target 8.7, 15, 39, 51, 92–93, 125, 188, 206

United States, 34–35, See also Trafficking in Persons (TIP) regime (US), See also Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 (US)

criminal-law approach to human trafficking, 17, 22

defining human trafficking, 15

emphasis on forced labour, 32–33

financial sanctions and TIP reports, 24–26

financial support for Global Fund to End Modern Slavery (GFEMS), 52

as ‘global sheriff’ of antitrafficking law and policy, 23

governance agendas, 208

human trafficking vs forced labour, 76–77, 82

new abolitionists, 42

philanthrocapitalism and, 42

the ‘prostitution pledge’, 25, 31, 35

ranking of progress on ending modern slavery, 51, 208

role in global governance of human trafficking, 25–26, 166

on supply chain governance, 88, 90

support for supply chain disclosure legislation, 59

support for Walk Free Foundation, 52

threats to cut funding to ILO, 73

Wilberforce Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2008, 45

United States Tariff Act, section 307, 33–34

United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement, 34

Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act (US), 34–35

Valverde, Marianna, 9, 211

victims, exploitation, 149

victims, human trafficking. See also victims’ rights

compared to smuggled migrants, 28–29, 38, 108

deserving of protection, 23, 25, 154

disproportionate marginalized and underserved communities, 36

ideal victims according to Trafficking Protocol, 26

obligation to assist, 113–114, 137

personification of the uncontrolled border, 146

portrayed as victims of modern slavery, 144

protection of, 20, 26, 35, 38, 83–84, 111–113, 117, 123, 141, 149, 173, 177

vulnerability of, 117

victims, modern slavery. See also victims’ rights

determining status as, 191–192, 195–197

protection and support for, 195–199

public benefits and, 192–193

removal of, 197

villanisation of, 196

victims, sex trafficking, 104, 119, 122, 141

Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 (US), 23–24, 26

victims’ rights, 107, 213, See also victims, human trafficking, See also sex workers’ rights

Brussels Declaration on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Human Beings, 110

downplayed by UK government, 148, 180

penal approach to, 116

protection of, 111–112, 128, 161

Wales, 177, 180

Walk Free Foundation (Walk Free), See also Global Slavery Index (GSI)

on commonalities of types of slavery, 49

ethical-business alliance, 175

example of philanthrocapitalism, 41–42

funding initiatives, 52–53

global antislavery alliance of, 51–52

Global Estimates of Modern Slavery, 92–93

Global Fund to End Modern Slavery, 53–54

Government Response Index, 51, 208

legislative strategy, 42, 214

measuring slavery, 1, 48–51, 79

measuring statistics, 57–58

‘official statistics’, 50

on products created by modern slavery and higher income countries, 41

on removing modern slavery from supply chains, 56–57, 59

residualist approach, 203

role of governments, 58

Wallis, Andrew, 176, 195

Weber, Max, 216–217

Wellings, Ben, 151, 169

Wemyss, Georgie, 13, 131

West Africa, 158

white slavery, 13, 17, 103, 139, 155, 210

Wijers, Marjan, 110, 130

Wilberforce, William, 151, 164–166, 179, 199

Wilberforce Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2008 (US), 45

women’s rights, 18–19, 103–104, See also gender, See also feminism, See also carceral feminists

Workers’ Group, 69–70, 82, 86, 88

World Bank, 24, 46, 61, 85, 203

World Trade Organization (WTO) Ministerial Conference 1996, 71

Yugoslavia, 128

Yuval-Davis, Nira, 131

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