Hostname: page-component-5cf477f64f-rdph2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-03T05:12:21.692Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

From Iran to the Netherlands, and everywhere in between

Irregular migration and human smuggling from Iran to the Netherlands (1988–1989 and 2009–2010)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 June 2023

Louise Ballière Open the ORCID record for Louise Ballière [Opens in a new window]
Louise Ballière*
Affiliation:
Université Catholique de Louvain, Belgium, Department of History, IACS/ LaRHis, +32 485 68 24 79, louise.balliere@uclouvain.be, Place Blaise Pascal 1/L3.03.02, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgique
*
louise.balliere@hotmail.com
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

A migrant's journey is no linear trajectory from A to B. It is a fragmented and complex move over different regions with alternating periods of mobility and immobility. This article researches the complex dynamics of irregular migration from Iran to the Netherlands, and everywhere in between. Through a historical comparison of the life stories of Iranian asylum seekers in the Netherlands in two time periods (1988–1989 and 2009–2010), it studies the routes they took, their relations with human smugglers, and their interactions with immigration policies and border managements along the way. It shows migrants' and smugglers’ flexibility and capacity to adapt to ever-changing circumstances. Migration politics and border controls, along with their increasing limitations on legal migration channels, are indeed crucial in the understanding of irregular migration practices and the ever-growing involvement of facilitating services. Through a combination of this migration policy research and the migration trajectory research, the paper explores these dynamics and the interactions between migrants, smugglers, and state policies in every phase of their journey from Iran to the Netherlands, and everywhere in between.

Keywords

Irregular MigrationMigration TrajectoryHuman SmugglingImmigration and Asylum Policy
Type
Article
Information
Iranian Studies , Volume 56 , Issue 3 , July 2023 , pp. 523 - 551
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Association for Iranian Studies

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

7. Bibliography

Achilli, Luigi, “The human smuggling industry: nuances and complexities.” Working paper, Center for Law & Human Behavior, University of Texas at El Paso, 2018, 1–18. https://hdl.handle.net/1814/60087.Google Scholar
Albrecht, Hans-Joerg. “Fortress Europe? – Controlling Illegal Migration.” European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice 10, no. 1(2002): 1–22.10.1163/15718170220519506CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Akcapar, Sebnem Koser. “Conversion as a Migration Strategy in a Transit Country: Iranian Shiites becoming Christians in Turkey.” The International Migration Review 40, no. 4 (2006): 817–853. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2006.00045.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Akcapar, Sebnem Koser. “Re-Thinking Migrants’ Networks and Social Capital.” International Migration 48, no. 2 (2010): 161–196. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2009.00557.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Azadi, Pooya, Mesgaran, Mohsen and Roudi, Farzaneh. “Iran's Population Dynamics and Demographic Window of Opportunity.” Working paper, Stanford Iran 2040 project, Stanford University, 2017. https://iranian-studies.stanford.edu/iran-2040-project/publications/irans-population-dynamics-and-demographic-window-opportunity.Google Scholar
Baird, Theodore. “Theoretical Approaches to Human Smuggling.” Working Paper, Danish Institute for International Studies, Roskilde University, 2013, 1–29.Google Scholar
Baird, Theodore. Human Smuggling in the Eastern Mediterranean. London: Routledge, 2017.Google Scholar
Bakhshizadeh, Marziyeh. “Women's Rights in Iran and CEDAW.” In Changing gender norms in Islam between Reason and Revelation, edited by Bakhshizadeh, Marziyeh, 61–40. Berlin: Burich UniPress Ltd., 2018.10.2307/j.ctv8xnfv0.6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baklacıoğlu, Nurcan Özgür and Özer, Yeşim. Turkey: beyond the fortress paradigm at the south-eastern borders of the EU. Lewiston: Edwin Edgar Melen Press, 2013.Google Scholar
Barry, James and Pickering, Sharon. “Women Fleeing Iran: why women leave Iran and seek asylum in Australia.” Australian Journal of Human Rights 19, no. 3 (2013): 79–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/1323-238X.2013.11882135Google Scholar
Benezer, Gadi. “Searching for Directions: conceptual and methodological challenges in researching refugee journeys.” Journal of Refugee Studies 28, no. 2 (2014): 297–318. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/feu022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bijleveld, Catrien and Taselaar, Arjen. Motieven van asielzoekers om naar Nederland te komen. Verslag van expert meeting. Den Haag: Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek- en Documentatiecentrum, 2000. https://repository.wodc.nl/handle/20.500.12832/1305.Google Scholar
Bilgili, Özge, Caarls, Kim and Fransen, Sonja. “Evolution of migration trajectories and transnational social networks over time: a study among sub-saharan African migrants in Europe.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 47, no. 14 (2021): 3310–3328. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1804195.Google Scholar
Biner, Özge. “Crossing the mountain and negotiating the border: human smuggling in eastern Turkey.” New Perspectives on Turkey 59 (2018): 89–108. https://doi.org/10.1017/npt.2018.24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bloch, Alice and Chimienti, Milena. “Irregular migration in a globalizing world.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 34, no. 8 (2011): 1271–1285. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2011.560277.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blommaert, Jan. “Analysing African asylum seekers’ stories: scratching the surface.” Working paper in Urban Language & Literacies 14, University of London, 2000, 1–32.Google Scholar
Böcker, Anita and Havinga, Tetty. “Country of Asylum by Choice or by Chance: asylum seekers in Belgium, the Netherlands and the UK.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 25, no. 1 (1999): 43–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.1999.9976671.Google Scholar
Burki, Marie-Florence. “Exploration into an asylum seeker's narrative retelling.” Master's thesis, Université de Neuchâtel, 2013.Google Scholar
Canada: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada. “Iran: Information on exit visas.” Accessed on March 14, 2022. https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6ab5e78.html.Google Scholar
Canada: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada. “Iran: Information on requirements for exit permits.” Accessed on March 14, 2022. https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6abb53c.html.Google Scholar
Carlier, Myriam, Dumolyn, Jan and Verboven, Koenraad. Prosopography approaches and applications. A handbook. Oxford: Occasional Publications UPR, 2007.Google Scholar
Castles, Stephen, de Haas, Hein and Miller, Mark J.. The Age of Migration. International Population Movements in the Modern World. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.Google Scholar
Centrum voor Gelijkheid van Kansen en Racismebestrijding. Iraanse migratie naar België. Belangrijke trends en vooruitzichten. Federaal Migratiecentrum Myria, 2005. https://www.myria.be/nl/publicaties/iraanse-migratie-naar-belgie-trends-en-vooruitzichten.Google Scholar
Chaichian, Mohammad. “The New Phase of Globalization and Brain Drain.” International Journal of Social Economic 39, no. 1/2 (2012): 18–38. https://doi.org/10.1108/0306829121118885.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawley, Heaven, Düvell, Franck, Jones, Katharine, McMahon, Simon and Sigona, Nando. Unravelling Europe's ‘Migration Crisis’. Journeys over Land and Sea. Bristol: Policy Press, 2018.Google Scholar
Czaika, Mathias, De Haas, Hein and Villares-Varela, Maria. “The Global Evolution of Travel Visa Regimes.” Population and Development Review 44, no. 3 (2018): 589–622. https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dagevos, Jaco and Dourelijn, Edith, eds. Vluchtelingengroepen in Nederland. Over de integratie van Afghaanse, Iraakse, Iraanse en Somalische migranten. Den Haag: Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau, 2011.Google Scholar
de Haas, Hein. “The Internal Dynamics of Migration Processes: A Theoretical Inquiry.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 36, no. 10 (2010): 1587–1617.10.1080/1369183X.2010.489361CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dekker, Jurrien and Senstius, Bas. “De methode-Bogaers.” De Groene Amsterdammer, April 23, 1997.Google Scholar
Doomernik, Jeroen & Kyle, David. “Organized migrant smuggling and state control: conceptual and policy challenges.” Special Issue of Journal of International Migration and Integration 5, no. 3 (2014): 93–102.Google Scholar
Eastmond, Marita. “Stories as Lived Experience: Narratives in forced migration research.” Journal of Refugee Studies 20, no. 2 (2007): 248–264. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fem007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Echeverría, Gabriel. Towards a systematic theory of irregular migration. Cham: Springer Open, 2020.10.1007/978-3-030-40903-6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fanack. “Education in Iran: Opportunities and Challenges.” Accessed on December 18, 2021. https://fanack.com/education/education-in-iran/.Google Scholar
Fassin, Didier and Rechtman, Richard. The Empire of Trauma. An inquiry into the condition of victimhood. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Fleury, Anjali, Foresti, Marta and O'Neil, Tam. Women on the Move: migration, gender, equality and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Policy paper, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, Federal Department of Foreign Affairs, 2016. https://odi.org/en/publications/women-on-the-move-migration-gender-equality-and-the-2030-agenda-for-sustainable-development/.Google Scholar
Fransen, Sonja and de Haas, Hein. “Trends and Patterns of Global Refugee Migration.” Population and Development Review 48, no. 1 (2021): 97–128. https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12456.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gazzoti, Lorena. “The “War on Smugglers” and the expansion of the border apparatus.” In The Routledge Handbook of Smuggling, edited by Gallien, Max and Weigand, Florian, 444–454. London: Routlegde, 2021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gheissari, Ali, ed. Contemporary Iran: Economy, Society, Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195378481.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hakimzadeh, Shirin. “Iran: a vast diaspora abroad and millions of refugees at home.” Migration Policy Institute. Accessed December 15, 2021. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/iran-vast-diaspora-abroad-and-millions-refugees-home.Google Scholar
Havinga, Tetty and Böcker, Anita. “Asielmigratie naar Nederland. Patronen van herkomst en bestemming.” Justitiële verkenningen 24, no. 9 (1998): 19–32. https://hdl.handle.net/2066/31914.Google Scholar
Içduygu, Ahmet. “Decentring migrant smuggling: reflections on the Eastern Mediterranean route to Europe.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 47, no. 14 (2021): 3293–3309. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1804194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Içduygu, Ahmet. “Irregular migration in Turkey.” Research Paper, International Organization for Migration, 2012. https://mirekoc.ku.edu.tr/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Irregular-Migration-in-Turkey.pdf.Google Scholar
Icduygu, Ahmet and Toktas, Sule. “How do Smuggling and Trafficking Operate via Irregular Border Crossings in the Middle East? Evidence from field work in Turkey.” International Migration 40, no. 6 (2002): 25–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2435.00222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada. “Iran: Exit and entry procedures at airports and land borders, particularly at the Imam Khomeini International airport.” Accessed on March 14, 2022. https://irb.gc.ca/en/country-information/rir/Pages/index.aspx?doc=454849.Google Scholar
International Organization for Migration. “Iran (the Islamic Republic of).” Accessed December 15, 2021. https://www.iom.int/countries/iran-islamic-republic.Google Scholar
Jacobs, Marie and Maryns, Katrijn. “Managing narratives, managing identities: Language and credibility in legal consultations with asylum seekers.” Language in Society (2021): 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404521000117.Google Scholar
Karimi, Maral. The Iranian Green Movement of 2009. Reverberating echoes of resistance. Boulder: Lexington Books, 2018.Google Scholar
Kirişci, Kemal. “A friendlier Schengen visa system as a tool of ‘soft power’: The experience of Turkey.” European Journal of Migration and Law 7 (2005): 343–367. https://doi.org/10.1163/157181605776293219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirişci, Kemal. “Turkey: A country of transition from emigration to immigration.” Mediterranean Politics 12, no. 1 (2007): 91–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/13629390601136871.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Köser, Khalid. “Social networks and the asylum cycle: the case of Iranians in the Netherlands.” International Migration Review 31, no. 3 (1997): 591–611. https://doi.org/10.1177/019791839703100303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Köser, Khalid. “The Smuggling of Asylum Seekers into Western Europe: Contradictions, Conundrums and Dilemmas.” In Global Human Smuggling. Comparative Perspectives, edited by Koslowski, Rey and Kyle, David, 58–73. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Köser, Khalid and McLauliffe, Marie, eds. A Long Way to Go. Irregular migration patterns, processes, drivers and decision making. Acton: Australian National University Press, 2017.Google Scholar
Koslowski, Rey and Kyle, David. Global Human Smuggling. Comparative Perspectives. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Kuschminder, Katie and Triandafyllidou, Anna. “Smuggling, trafficking and extortion: new conceptual challenges and policy changes on the Libyan route to Europe.” Antipode 52, no. 1 (2020): 206–226.10.1111/anti.12579CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kyle, David and Liang, Azi. “Migrant Merchants: Human Smuggling from Ecuador and China.” Working Paper, Center for Comparative Immigration Studies, University of California, 2001, 1–29. https://ccis.ucsd.edu/_files/wp43.pdf.Google Scholar
Mainwaring, Cetta and Brigden, Noelle. “Beyond the Border: Clandestine Migration Journeys.” Geopolitics 21, no. 2 (2016): 243–262.10.1080/14650045.2016.1165575CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Majidi, Nassim. “Community Dimensions of Smuggling: The Case of Afghanistan and Somalia.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 676, no. 1 (2018): 97–113. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716217751895.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Middleton, Darren. “Why asylum seekers seek refuge in particular destination countries: an exploration of key determinants.” Research paper, Global Migration Perspectives, Global Commission on International Migration, 2005. https://www.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl486/files/2018-07/gmp34.pdf.Google Scholar
Mobasher, Mohsen Mostafavi, ed. The Iranian diaspora. Challenges, negotiations and transformations. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moruzzi, Norma Claire and Sadeghi, Fatemeh. “Out of the Frying Pan, into the Fire: young Iranian Women Today.” Middle East Report 241 (2006): 22–28. https://doi.org/10.2307/25164760.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mozaffari, Ali, Karimian, Ramin and Mousavi, Sajad. “The Return of the ‘Idea of Iran’ (2005–2015).” In Tourism and Political Change, edited by Butler, Richard and Suntikul, Wantanee, 186–199. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers Ltd, 2017.Google Scholar
Norwegian Country of Origin Information Centre. Iran: Christian Converts and House Churches. Prevalence and conditions for religious practice. Landinfo, 2017. https://landinfo.no/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Iran-Christian-converts-and-house-churches-1-prevalence-and-conditions-for-religious-practice.pdf.Google Scholar
Obdeijn, Herman and Schrover, Marlou. Komen en Gaan. Immigratie en emigratie in Nederland vanaf 1550. Amsterdam: Bert Bakker, 2008.Google Scholar
Özçürümez, Saime and Şenses, Nazli. “Europeanisation and Turkey: Studying irregular migration policy.” Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies 13, no. 2 (2011): 233–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/19448953.2011.578867.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piguet, Etienne. “Theories of voluntary and forced migration.” In Routledge Handbook of environmental Migration and Displacement, edited by McLeman, Robert and Gemenne, François, 17–28. London: Routledge, 2018.10.4324/9781315638843-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plambech, Sine. “Sex, Deportation and Rescue: Economies of Migration among Nigerian Sex Workers.” Feminist Economics 23, no. 3 (2017): 134–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2016.1181272.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rezai-Rashti, Goli. “The Politics of Gender Segregation and Women's Access to Higher Education in the Islamic Republic of Iran: the interplay of repression and resistance.” Gender and Education 27, no. 5 (2015): 469–486. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2015.1045457.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, Vaughan and Segrott, Jeremy. “Understanding the Decision-Making of Asylum-Seekers.” Research Study, Home Office, Development and Statistics Directorate, 2002. http://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/57982.Google Scholar
Sanchez, Gabriella. “Critical perspectives on clandestine migration facilitation: an overview of migrant smuggling research.” Journal on Migration and Human Security 5, no. 1 (2017): 9–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/233150241700500102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanchez, Gabriella. Human Smuggling and Border Crossings. London: Routledge, 2014.10.4324/9780203762608CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schapendonk, Joris, Bolay, Matthieu and Dahinden, Janine. “The conceptual limits of the ‘migration journey’. De-exceptionalising mobility in the context of West African trajectories.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 47, no. 14 (2021): 3243–3259. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1804191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheel, Stephan and Squire, Vicki. “Forced migrants as ‘illegal’ migrants.” In The Oxford handbook of refugee and forced migration studies, edited by Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, Elena, Loescher, Gil, Long, Katy and Sigona, Nando, 243–262. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Shelley, Louise. Human smuggling and trafficking into Europe: a comparative perspective. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute, 2014.Google Scholar
Siamak, Seyfi and Hall, Michael, eds. Tourism in Iran. Challenges, Development and issues. London: Routledge, 2018.10.4324/9781315146409CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spener, David. “Mexican migrant-smuggling: A cross-border cottage industry.” Journal of International Migration and Integration 5, no. 4 (2009): 295–320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-004-1016-8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Torbat, Akbar. “The brain drain from Iran to the United States.” The Middle East Journal 56, no. 2 (2002): 272–295.Google Scholar
Triandafyllidou, Anna, ed. Irregular migration in Europe. Myths and realities. London: Routledge, 2010.Google Scholar
Triandafyllidou, Anna. “Migrant Smuggling: Novel Insights and Implications for Migration Control Policies.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 676, no. 1 (2018): 212–221. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716217752330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walaardt, Tycho. “Patience and Perseverance: the asylum procedure of Tamils and Iranians in the Netherlands in the mid-1980s.” Tijdschrift voor Sociale en Economische Geschiedenis 8, no. 3 (2011): 2–31. https://doi.org/10.18352/tseg.332.Google Scholar
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Global study on smuggling of migrants. New York: United Nations, 2018. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/glosom.html.Google Scholar
Vahabi, Nader. “The origin of the different waves of Iranian migration in France.” Cultural and Religious Studies 4, no. 8 (2016): 469–487. DOI: 10.17265/2328-2177/2016.08.001.Google Scholar
van Liempt, Ilse. “A critical insight into Europe's criminalisation of human smuggling.” European Policy Analysis 3 (2016): 1–12.Google Scholar
van Liempt, Ilse. “Mensensmokkel naar Nederland: Aannames, Percepties en Effecten.” Migrantenstudies 23, no. 1 (2007): 36–50.Google Scholar
van Liempt, Ilse. Navigating Borders: inside perspectives on the process of human smuggling into the Netherlands. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2007.10.5117/9789053569306CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Meeteren, Masja, Engbersen, Godfried and van San, Marion. “Striving for a Better Position: Aspirations and the Role of Cultural, Economic and Social Capital for Irregular Migrants in Belgium.” International Migration Review 43, no. 4 (2009): 881–907. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2009.00788.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vogt, Wendy. Lives in Transit. Violence and Intimacy on the Migrant Journey. Oakland: University of California Press, 2018.Google Scholar
Zhang, Sheldon, Sanchez, Gabriella and Achilli, Luigi. “Crimes of solidarity in mobility: Alternative views on migration smuggling.” The Annals of the American Academy of political and Social Science AAPSS 676, no. 1 (2018): 6–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716217746908.Google Scholar