Disasters are the consequences of natural or technological hazards that affect a vulnerable society.Reference Mayhorn and McLaughlin1 A technological disaster is declared when a technological danger causes the death of 10 or more people, impacts 100 or more people, or leads to the declaration of a state of emergency or an international call for help.Reference Guha-Sapir, Below and Hoyois2, Reference Coppola3
The EM-DAT database is not widely used by disaster medicine in general. The EM-DAT database classifies technological disasters into groups: industrial, transport, and miscellaneous. Industrial disasters are hazards caused by any product or substance that is directly or indirectly associated with an industrial or manufacturing process, including human activities. Examples include industrial pollution, toxic waste, chemical spills, and nuclear radiation. Transportation disasters are situations caused by a transport accident or related vehicles, infrastructures, or hazardous materials, including human errors. Examples include aircraft crashes, vehicle collisions, and bridge collapses. Miscellaneous disasters are situations caused by structural failures, fires, or explosions directly or indirectly related to human errors. Examples include dam collapses, plant fires, and equipment failures.Reference Shen and Hwang4
Since the Industrial Revolution, disasters resulting from technological hazards have increased. As the global population surges, urbanization continues to spread, and industrialization intensifies, this increase is likely to continue.Reference Shen and Hwang4 It has been reported that obtaining information about disasters and preparing for them is the most effective way to prevent disasters or reduce their effects.Reference Coppola3 It is possible to determine the risks of technological disasters, to determine priorities, and to plan services by knowing this epidemiology. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to define the distribution and characteristics of the subtypes of technological disasters in the world according to regions and years.
Method
Our study was conducted using the international dataset at www.emdat.be/. The technological disasters between 1970 and 2020, the years they occurred, their locations (region and continent), the types of disasters, and the numbers of dead and affected were recorded.
In summarizing the data obtained for the study, descriptive statistics were tabulated as medians, minimums, and maximums depending on the distributions for continuous (numerical) variables. Categorical variables were summarized as numbers and percentages. The normality status of each numerical variable was checked using the Shapiro–Wilk, Kolmogorov–Smirnov, and Anderson-Darling tests.
A Pearson chi-square test was used to compare the differences between the categorical variables according to the groups in the 2 × 2 tables, where the expected cells were 5 and above, Fisher’s exact test was used for the tables when the expected cells were below 5, and the Fisher–Freeman–Halton test was used for the R × C tables when the expected cells were below 5.
Statistical analyses were performed using the Jamovi (version 2.2.5.0) and JASP (version 0.16.1) programs, and the significance level was set at 0.05 (P value) in the statistical analyses.
Results
When the last 50 years of the international disaster database were examined, we found that the greatest number of disasters occurred between 2001 and 2010 (3 051 disasters and 35.9%). The most common type of disaster observed in the last 50 years was transportation accidents (5 666 disasters and 66.6%) and there has been a significant increase over more than ten years. In industrial accidents, explosions took the first place, followed by fires and collapses (920 [32.3%], 875 [30.8%], and 438 [15.4%], respectively). In the “miscellaneous disasters” category, explosions, fires, and collapses also take the first three places (920 [35.5%], 875 [33.8%], and 438 [16.9%], respectively). While the continent with the most frequent disasters in the last 50 years was Asia (3 879 [45.6%]), it was followed by Africa (2 220 [26.1%]) and South and North America (1 359 [16%]) (Table 1).
Figure 1. Change of disaster types by decades according to the records of the international disaster database for the last 50 years.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the last 50 years of records on disasters according to international disaster database records
Descriptive statistics were given as numbers (percentages).
According to the records of the international disaster database, miscellaneous accidents were observed significantly more frequently than industrial and transport accidents from 1970 to 1980, while industrial accidents were also observed significantly more frequently than transport accidents (miscellaneous accidents > industrial accidents > transport accidents). Disaster types were observed at similar frequencies in 1981–1990 and 1991–2000. In 2001–2010, industrial and transport accidents were observed at similar frequencies and at significantly higher frequencies than miscellaneous accidents (transport accidents = industrial accidents > miscellaneous accidents). Finally, in 2011–2020, transport accidents and miscellaneous accidents were observed at similar frequencies and at significantly higher frequencies than industrial accidents (transport accidents = miscellaneous accidents > industrial accidents) (Table 2).
Figure 2. Change of industrial accident sub types within decades according to the records of the international disaster database for the last 50 years.
Table 2. Comparison of the change in disaster types in the last 5 decades according to international disaster database records
*Pearson Chi-Square.
Descriptive statistics were given as numbers (percentages).
a, b, c: Letters showing significant differences between the groups.
Column percentage is given.
It was observed that the frequency of transport accidents from 1970–1980 was significantly lower than the frequency of transport accidents observed in all other decades, while the frequency of miscellaneous accidents was significantly higher from 1970–1980 than in all other decades. When industrial accidents were examined, it was observed that the accidents from 1970–1980 were more frequent than the accidents observed in all other decades (Table 3).
Figure 3. Variation of miscellaneous accident sub types within decades according to the records of the international disaster database for the last 50 years.
Table 3. Comparison of changes observed in the frequency of each type of disaster during the last 5 decades according to international disaster database records
*Pearson Chi-Square.
Descriptive statistics were given as numbers (percentages).
a, b, c: Letters showing significant differences between the groups.
Row percentage is given.
In the last 50 years, fire was the most common disaster among industrial accidents from 1970–1980 and 1981–1990, while explosions were the most common industrial accidents from 1991–2000 and 2001–2010. From 2011–2020, fire was again the most frequently observed industrial accident. A similar situation was observed in the subtypes of “miscellaneous accidents.” When transport accidents were examined, train accidents from 1970–1980 and road accidents in the following years were the most common transport accidents (Table 4).
Table 4. Descriptive statistics of disaster sub types according to the last 5 decades of the international disaster database
Descriptive statistics were given as numbers (percentages).
Column percentage is given.
Figure 4. Change of sub types of transport accidents within decades according to the records of the international disaster database for the last 50 years.
Transport accidents observed in Africa were significantly more common than those observed on the other continents. In terms of industrial accidents, similar accident rates were observed in Europe, South and North America, and Oceania, and accident rates in Asia were significantly higher than in Europe, South and North America, and Africa (Table 5).
Figure 5. Change of disaster types by decades according to the records of the international disaster database for the last 50 years.
Table 5. Comparison of disaster type and disaster regions according to the records in the last 5 decades of the international disaster database
Descriptive statistics were given as numbers (percentages).
*Pearson Chi-Square.
a, b, c: Letters showing significant differences between the groups.
Row percentage is given.
Fires in Europe, South and North America, and Oceania, explosions in Asia, and collapses in Africa were the most common industrial and miscellaneous accidents. When transport accidents were examined according to region, airway accidents were the most common accident subtype in Europe and Oceania, while road accidents were the most common accident subtype in Asia, South and North America, and Africa (Table 6).
Figure 6. Variation of industrial accident sub types by regions according to the last 50 years records of the international disaster database.
Table 6. Comparison of disaster type and disaster regions according to the records in the last 5 decades of the international disaster database
Descriptive statistics were given as numbers (percentages).
Column percentage is given.
Figure 7. Variation of “miscellaneous accidents” sub types by regions according to the records of the international disaster database for the last 50 years.
Figure 8. Change of disaster types by decades according to the records of the international disaster database for the last 50 years.
Discussion
In this study, we determined that the most common type of disaster was transportation accidents and that disasters were most common on the Asian continent. In the 1970s–1980s, transportation accidents were found to be less common than in other decades, while miscellaneous and industrial accidents were found to be more common. Industrial accidents and miscellaneous accidents were most often caused by fire and explosion, and transport accidents were most frequently caused by road accidents (or train accidents from 1970–1980). While transportation accidents were mostly seen on the African continent, when transportation accidents are examined by region, airway accidents were the most common accident subtype in Europe and Oceania, and road accidents were the most common accident subtype in Asia, South and North America, and Africa. Miscellaneous and industrial accidents were most frequently observed in Oceania, followed by Asia and the European continent; fires in Europe, South and North America, and Oceania, explosions in Asia, and collapses in Africa were the most common industrial and miscellaneous accidents.
It has been stated that technological disasters come with industrialization, which is marked by technological development and adaptation.Reference Shen and Hwang4 No country can be excluded from technological disasters unless the technologies are used perfectly and without human error. Technological disasters in rapidly developing countries (Asian countries: India, China, Bangladesh, and Japan; North American countries: USA, Mexico, and Canada; European countries: Russia, Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and Belgium; African countries: Nigeria, South Africa, Algeria, and Congo; and Middle Eastern countries: Iran, Turkey, and Egypt) have been reported to have more destructive effects, while countries in Oceania and other African countries have been reported to be exposed to less destructive effects.Reference Shen and Hwang4 In our study, it was determined that miscellaneous and industrial disasters were most frequently seen in Oceania, followed by Asia and Europe, while transport accidents were most frequently seen in Africa.
We found that the most common cause of technological disasters was transportation accidents, specifically road traffic accidents. In another study, it was reported that the most common cause of mass casualty events was road accidents.Reference Mohanty, Radhakrishnan and Stephen5 Despite significant investments in manpower, materials, and financial resources, road accidents have still been reported as the main cause of death and injury. Major road accidents are seen as an important issue in terms of safety management in various countries around the world.Reference Carmo, Nery and Rocha6 The causes of road accidents can be explained by individual factors vehicle, road, weather, and management factors. Individual factors include excessive speed, fatigue, lack of protective equipment, lack of knowledge of local driving rules, alcohol or drug use, sleepy driving, gender, and age. Vehicle factors include vehicle overload, vehicle volume, and the condition of tires. Road factors include road surface types, road length, horizontal curvature of the road, road friction, average daily traffic flow, daily average truck percentage, large traffic volume, excessive speed, narrow lane widths, greater number of lanes, urban road sections, narrow banquet widths, and reduced medium widths have been shown to increase the probability of accidents. Weather factors (precipitation, fog, dust, rain, snow, and high temperatures) and driving errors have been identified as the main contributing factors in about two-thirds of road accidents. Management factors, traffic rules, and legislation can reduce or control the rate of traffic violations, thus reducing serious injury and death incidents.Reference Lei, Zhang and Lu7 While fewer aircraft accidents have been reported as being investigated, larger aircraft accidents have been reported to be more common in winter, and professional pilots have been reported to have superior results in terms of safety.Reference Liebold, Hippler and Schmitz8
It was determined that industrial disasters were most frequently caused by fires and explosions; industrial accidents were most frequently seen in Oceania, followed by Asia and the European continent; fire was the most common cause in Europe, South and North America, and Oceania; explosions were the most common cause in Asia; and collapses were the most common cause in Africa. It has been reported that industrial accidents in Asia are mostly caused by mining accidents in China and that mining accidents are mostly caused by explosions.Reference Chu, Jain and Muradian9
Disaster management has been reported to consist of four stages: prevention and reduction, preparation, response, and recovery.Reference Iqbal, Perez and Barthelemy10 Risk analysis, hazard zone mapping, resource allocation, climate estimation, and determination of building warning codes have been reported to play an important role in the prevention and reduction step.Reference Iqbal, Perez and Barthelemy10 Another article suggested that epidemiology plays an important role in determining effects on health and identifying the source.Reference Bertazzi11 We hope that this study will play an important role in reducing technological disasters by examining their distribution by global continent, year, and subtype.
Limitations
EM-DAT is a comprehensive database of disaster events that includes information on natural disasters, technological accidents, and human-made disasters worldwide.Reference Mazhin, Farrokhi and Noroozi12 However, EM-DAT has some limitations. EM-DAT may neglect the effects of high-frequency and low-intensity disasters, leading to the overlooking of smaller but frequently recurring events.Reference Mazhin, Farrokhi and Noroozi12 EM-DAT often measures the severity of disasters based on damage or casualty numbers, which can result in a bias towards highlighting disasters in developed countries and overlooking events in less developed countries.Reference Mazhin, Farrokhi and Noroozi12 Specific criteria must be met to report a disaster in the EM-DAT database. Events that do not meet these criteria are not included in the database. For example, to record a disaster in the EM-DAT database, at least one of the following criteria must be met: ten or more deaths, 100 or more injuries, a declaration of a state of emergency, or a formal request for international assistance.Reference Mazhin, Farrokhi and Noroozi12 These limitations indicate that the use of EM-DAT may not be appropriate in certain situations. Researchers and decision-makers should carefully assess disaster data while taking these limitations into account.
Conclusion
Transport accidents have increased significantly over the last 10 years and are the most common cause of technological disasters. Road accidents are the most common type of transport accident.
Acknowledgments
There is no funding statement for this study.
Competing interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interests.
