Measuring high-level corruption is subject to extensive scholarly and policy interest, which has achieved moderate progress in the last decade. This article develops two objective proxy measures of high-level corruption in public procurement: single bidding in competitive markets and a composite score of tendering ‘red flags’. Using official government data on 2.8 million contracts in twenty-eight European countries in 2009–14, we directly operationalize a common definition of corruption: unjustified restriction of access to public contracts to favour a selected bidder. Corruption indicators are calculated at the contract level, but produce aggregate indices consistent with well-established country-level indicators, and are also validated by micro-level tests. Data are published at http://digiwhist.eu/resources/data/.

Three typical cokes were used for experiments in order to clarify the relationship between coke properties and solution loss behavior and its influence on the post-reaction strength of coke. Isothermal reactions between coke and CO2 at 1050–1300 °C were stopped at a weight loss of 25%. The post-reaction strength of coke was tested by an I-Type tumbler. Coke chemical reactivity and pore structure were tested to analyze the coke properties. The results show that the reaction temperature caused the most serious degradation to three cokes that were different due to their different properties. If two kinds of coke have similar chemical reactivity, the one with the less developed pore structure has a lower temperature, causing the most serious degradation. If two kinds of coke have similar pore structure, the one with the higher chemical reactivity has a lower temperature, causing the most serious degradation. This knowledge contributes to a reference for evaluating the capability of coke strength for resisting solution loss.