One of the less popular and less investigated topics of law is the use of biocontrol agents (BCAs). Despite the general growing attention to the use of BCAs in primary production, a comprehensive regulatory framework is still lacking. When shifting to possible uses of BCAs in the following phases of the food chain, legislation is even more incomplete (and inadequate) despite the challenging opportunities they offer both for pest control and for pathogen control. The paper will provide an overview of the uses of BCAs taking into consideration all the food chain stages, the relevant partial EU regulatory scheme and its critical issues.

Analytical, spectroscopic, and X-ray powder diffraction techniques were used to investigate the adsorption of the herbicide sodium acifluorfen (acifluorfen = 5-[2-chloro-4-(trifluorornethyl)phenoxy]-2-nitrobenzoic acid) from aqueous solution onto Cu2+-, Al3+-, Fe3+-, and Ca2+-saturated montmorillonite. As indicated by infrared and electron spin resonance spectra, which are coincident with those of the corresponding solid metal complexes, and by the basal spacings, which are the same for all the samples, acifluorfen extracted the exchangeable ions from the clay interlayer and precipitated them on external surfaces. The process involved the replacement of sodium as the saturating ion and was due to the formation of insoluble complexes between the herbicide and polyvalent metal ions.

The adsorption of the sulfonylurea herbicide rimsulfuron, [N-((4,6-dimethoxypyrimidin-2-yl)aminocarbonyl)-3-(ethylsulfonyl)-2-pyridinesulfonamide], on clay minerals with different saturating cations was studied. Three smectites with different lattice charge distribution (hectorite, montmorillonite and nontronite) were selected and made homoionic to Ca2+, Cu2+ and Al3+. Because of the instability of rimsulfuron in water, the experiments were carried out in chloroform solution. The interaction mechanism depends on the nature of the saturating cation and the tetrahedral layer charge of the silicate. Among the exchangeable ions studied, only Al3+ is able to produce degradation of the herbicide to N-(4,6-dimethoxypyrimidin-2-yl)-N-[(3-(ethylsulfonyl)-2-pyridinyl]urea. In this case, the lower the tetrahedral charge, the more active the degradation. The Ca2+-saturated clays are ineffective in the degradation. In contrast, the formation of a stable chelate complex with the saturating ion permits rimsulfuron to be adsorbed to a rather high extent into Cu(II)-clays and to be stable against degradation.

The adsorption of the herbicide imazamethabenz-methyl, a mixture of the two isomers methyl (±)-2-[4,5-dihydro-4-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)-5-oxo-1 H-imidazol-2-yl]-4-methylbenzoate para isomer) and methyl (±)-2-[4,5-dihydro-4-methyl-4-(l-methylethyl)-5-oxo-1 H-imidazol-2-yl]-5-methyl-benzoate (meta isomer), from water onto Al3+, Fe3+-, Ca2+-, K+- and Na+-montmorillonite was studied by analytical (HPLQ methods. The adsorption from an organic solvent was also investigated by spectroscopic (IR) and X-ray diffraction measurements. It was observed that, depending on the acidic properties of the exchangeable cations, two different mechanisms may take place. The first one, acting on Fe3+- and Al3+-clays, involves the protonation of the more basic nitrogen atom of imidazolinone ring of the herbicide because of a proton transfer from the acidic metal-bound water, followed by adsorption on the clay surfaces. In this case, the clay surfaces have greater affinity for the meta than the para isomer, due to the extra-stabilization of the meta protonated form by resonance. The second mechanism, taking place on Ca2+-, K+- and Na+-clays, is hydrogen-bond formation between the ester carbonyl group of the herbicide and hydration water metal ions and is not affected by the structure of the isomers.

The adsorption of the herbicide dimepiperate S-(α;α-dimethylbenzyl)-1-piperidinecarbothioate on homoionic Fe3+-, Al3+-, Ca2+-, and Na+-montmorillonite was studied in aqueous medium. The adsorption is described well by the Freundlich equation. The adsorption capacity decreases in the order Fe3+ > Al3+ > Ca2+ > Na+ clay. The dimepiperate adsorption from chloroform solution was also investigated by analytical, spectroscopic, and X-ray powder diffraction techniques. IR results suggest that the adsorption involves the interaction of the thioester carbonyl group of dimepiperate possibly with the surrounding water of metal ions. On Al3+ and Fe3+ clays, this interaction leads to hydrolysis of the thioester bond and formation of the thiol and carbamic acid derivatives that yield α-methylstyrene and piperidine, respectively.

Clay minerals are effective adsorbents for the remediation of pesticides in wastewater due to their large superficial areas and excellent cation-exchange capabilities. However, this adsorption effect can be reduced by the accumulation of adsorbents on clay minerals, amongst other problems. Therefore, in this study, montmorillonite (Mnt) modified by layered double hydroxide (LDH) with different loading amounts was successfully prepared using an in situ method. The results from X-ray diffraction, Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry, Brunauer–Emmet–Teller (BET) and scanning electron microscopy analyses revealed that LDH structures were successfully combined with the Mnt layer and formed a porous structure. However, excess LDH still caused the aggregation and accumulation of layers. The adsorption performance of LDH@Mnt for atrazine (ATZ) and paraquat (PQ) was investigated, and the removal efficiency of the LDH@Mnt composite was higher than those of Mnt and LDH alone. The kinetic study revealed that the adsorption process fitted the pseudo-second-order model and internal diffusion model, and 3-LDH@Mnt had the greatest absorbability efficiency for both ATZ and PQ, indicating the adsorption process was controlled by the number of active sites of the adsorbent. The generalized Langmuir model accurately characterized the adsorption process of ATZ and PQ elimination in the adsorption isotherm investigation, indicating that the adsorption energies of the active sites on the adsorbents were different. 3-LDH@Mnt had better absorbability performance for ATZ/PQ, and the sorption capacities were 7.03 and 91.9 mg g–1, respectively. According to site energy distribution theory, the amount of sorption sites of the composite adsorbent was large and the average adsorption energy was high, both of which being beneficial for the adsorption of ATZ and PQ. The effects of pH, coexisting anions and reuse experiments were also tested, indicating that the LDH@Mnt composite possessed high adsorption stability. This excellent removal performance represents a promising strategy for the remediation and elimination of pesticide contaminations from the environment.

There have been growing concerns about exposure to chemical pesticides in fresh fruits and vegetables, which are an important part of a healthy diet. This study investigates consumer preferences for reduced pesticide, organic, local, and Missouri Grown produce using a discrete choice experiment. An online survey of fresh tomato consumers was conducted in Missouri to collect choice data, demographic information, and the individual health and environmental attitudes of shoppers. Respondents were willing to pay a premium of 6% for tomatoes produced with 50% less pesticide than conventional tomatoes. The finding indicates there may be a demand for reduced pesticide produce as a compromise between conventional and organic products in terms of price and safety. Also, we found complementary effects between the reduced pesticide attribute and local or Missouri Grown labels, which means consumers in this segment would pay more for fruits and vegetables that were also locally produced. The results suggest important implications for local producers and policy makers in terms of the production and marketing of reduced pesticide produce, such as the need to develop a reduced pesticide label.

Stakeholder participation is an important tenet for European Union (EU) policymaking and it can be approached from different disciplinary angles. The legal literature tends to refer to participation as a formal consultative opportunity in regulatory processes, resulting in rather homogeneous institutional arrangements for participation across policy fields and different sets of problems. Sustainability science, on the other hand, starts from the understanding of a problem in its complexity and peculiarities as a driving force determining both the rationale behind and the design of each participatory process. In this paper, we explore lessons regarding participation that could be derived from adopting an approach in which we combine insights from law and sustainability science. Along four principles, we explore potential leverage points for improving the sustainability of EU decision-making processes and their outcomes.

Responding to mistrust in the European agencies’ risk assessments in politically salient cases, the European Union (EU) legislator, the European Food Safety Authority and the European Medicines Agency alike have accelerated their efforts to foster EU regulatory science transparency. These simultaneous endeavours have, however, taken place in a fragmented legislative and administrative context, with each agency operating under a different legal framework. By focusing on authorisation procedures, from registration of studies to authorisation of novel foods, pesticides and human medicines, this article examines the resulting regimes governing the disclosure of scientific data by EU agencies to identify common trends and sectoral specificities. Against the background of an overall shift towards enhanced transparency, we shed light on, first, the circulation of institutional arrangements and practices among agencies and, second, the new dimensions of transparency emerging from these developments. We also highlight the remaining sectoral differences and argue that they could have potentially large impacts on the amount and type of information disclosed and on the level of transparency perceived by stakeholders and citizens. We argue that more coherence across the sectoral transparency regimes is needed, in particular in light of the agencies’ contested legitimacy and of their increasing cooperation on cross-cutting issues like antimicrobial resistance and medicine and pesticide residues in food.

The European Commission’s 2020 draft Chemicals Strategy for Sustainability set the ambitious goal of achieving a “Toxic-Free Environment”. Those ambitions were harshly criticised by a team based in Germany’s Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (or BfR); they claimed that toxicological risks from chemicals had already been minimised and were optimally regulated. This paper outlines evidence to support the Commission’s implication that the European Union’s chemicals regulatory regime is suboptimal. It also criticises the BfR team’s contentions by reference to empirical findings (eg concerning tumours, congenital anomalies and the toxicity of mixtures) and by disentangling their conceptual confusions.

At least one-third of the land on earth is used for agricultural production and conflicts with the interests of wildlife are inevitable. These conflicts are likely to escalate as the human population expands and as the scale and intensity of agricultural production increases. This paper argues that the same underlying causes frequently affect both wild animal welfare and conservation. Three key threats are discussed: disease transmission from domestic animals and the interventions used to manage wildlife reservoirs of zoonotic diseases; physical operations such as harvesting and the conversion of wildlife habitat to farmland; and the use of agrochemicals, particularly for pest control. While direct effects, such as accidental poisoning, tend to attract the most public attention, it is argued that indirect effects, such as the reduction in food supplies or the disruption of social structures, are likely to be of greater importance. The suffering of pest animals has traditionally been undervalued. There is a need for broader adoption of integrated, ecologically based strategies which minimise suffering and also minimise the numbers of animals involved by preventing population resurgence. New research is urgently required to compare the effects of alternative, economically viable farming strategies on both wildlife conservation and welfare, possibly within the framework of ecosystem services assessments.

Pesticide regulations and application technologies are changing rapidly due to rising concerns around off-target movement of pesticides and increased focus on improving the efficiency of pesticide applications. In order to conduct relevant applied research and develop educational programs related to pesticide application, it is necessary to understand the common application practices and technologies that growers use. A survey was conducted to assess common pesticide application practices and technologies used by Georgia growers. Both online and printed survey copies were distributed by county agricultural extension agents to growers in all 159 counties. A total of 186 responses representing agronomic crops in 65 counties were received and analyzed for results. Main results of this survey indicated that 1) 72% of respondents produced ≥200 ha of crops; 2) 29% of respondents received their information from university Extension personnel; 3) 42% of respondents used a separate sprayer for applications of dicamba, 2,4-D, or 2,4-DB; 4) 46% of respondents used sprayers with boom lengths ≥18.3 m; 5) 65% of respondents used ≥121 L/ha to apply pesticides; 6) 53% of respondents used three or more different nozzles on their spray booms throughout the season; 7) 68% of respondents used TeeJet® nozzles; 8) 65% of respondents used global positioning systems and rate controllers on their application equipment; 9) 66% of respondents recorded their pesticide application data on a notepad or diary; and 10) 39% of respondents reported that application accuracy is the biggest advantage of new spray technologies. Respondents also reported that weather, timing, and pesticide drift/regulations were their biggest application challenges and that more research is needed on topics such as rates, carrier volumes, pest control, chemicals and adjuvants. Information from this survey provides useful insights into the current application practices, technologies, and research needs of Georgia growers and will be used for developing appropriate research and educational efforts.

Despite extensive research into the toxicology of the herbicide glyphosate, there are still major unknowns regarding its effects on the human gut microbiome. We describe the effects of glyphosate and a Roundup glyphosate-based herbicide on infant gut microbiota using SHIME technology. SHIME microbiota culture was undertaken in the presence of a concentration of 100-mg/L glyphosate and the same glyphosate equivalent concentration of Roundup. Roundup and to a lesser extent glyphosate caused an increase in fermentation activity, resulting in acidification of the microbial environment. This was also reflected by an increase in lactate and acetate production concomitant to a decrease in the levels of propionate, valerate, caproate and butyrate. Ammonium production reflecting proteolytic activities was increased by Roundup exposure. Global metabolomics revealed large-scale disturbances, including an increased abundance of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Changes in bacterial composition measured by qPCR and 16S rRNA suggested that lactobacilli had their growth stimulated as a result of microenvironment acidification. Co-treatment with the spore-based probiotic formulation MegaSporeBiotic reverted some of the changes in short-chain fatty acid levels. Altogether, our results suggest that glyphosate can exert effects on human gut microbiota.