This article offers a new interpretation of καθαρίζων πάντα τὰ βρώματα in Mark 7.19c. After reviewing and offering some nuance to an emerging non-antinomian interpretation of 7.15a/18b, I turn to Mark 7.19c and argue that the phrase καθαρίζων πάντα τὰ βρώματα should be understood as a part of Jesus' speech in 7.18–19. Jesus’ argument, I suggest, is that ritually defiled food cannot defile humans through ingestion because humans purify all foods from ritual impurity through digestion. This reasoning depends on a widespread Jewish view that excrement is impervious to ritual impurity: because all excrement is pure, the stomach acts as a purifying agent that purifies all food from ritual impurity. I proffer that the common translation of Mark 7.19c – ‘Thus he declared all foods clean’ (NRSV) – should therefore be abandoned.

Polymer-based composites modified with organoclay are economically beneficial candidates for a variety of applications. Different types of impurities accompany montmorillonite phases in various bentonites, which impact the quality and cost of organoclays and final composites. To obtain organoclays for clay composite applications, eight Iranian raw bentonites from different geographical locations were selected as the candidates and characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD). Sample IB was chosen due to its high purity and lower cristobalite content than the other samples. It was purified by centrifugation or sedimentation methods using a sodium hexametaphosphate (NaHMP) dispersant. The cation-exchange capacity (CEC) was measured for bentonite before and after purification by sedimentation, and it showed a significant increase from 6.944 to 12.128 eq g–1, confirming successful purification. Organoclays were prepared using purified bentonite (sedimentation method) with two surfactants (cetyltrimethylammonium bromide and octadecylamine), and the amount of octadecylamine was optimized. Purified bentonite and organoclay were characterized by XRD, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray fluorescence. The results indicate that most of the impurities were removed after purification, and the interlayer space of organoclays increased to 35 Å in the optimized sample prepared with an amount of octadecylamine that was twice the CEC in purified bentonite. The prepared organoclay was used to improve low-density polyethylene (LDPE) polymer properties. The clay–polymer composite properties were studied by field emission SEM, thermogravimetric analysis and tensile strength tests. The organoclay was fully dispersed in the LDPE matrix and in the sample with 5 wt.% of organoclay, where Ti (the temperature at which 10% of the sample is decomposed) and T50% (the midpoint of degradation) were 17°C and 13°C greater than those of polyethylene, respectively. Additionally, the sample residue with 5 wt.% of organoclay at 600°C was 43.4%. The tensile strength of polyethylene increased from 8.67 to 9.03 MPa in the sample with 4 wt.% of organoclay.

Batch sorption studies of Cr(III), Ni(II), Zn(II), Cu(II) and Cd(II) were conducted on Ca-bentonite and Na-bentonite to determine their retention capacities for these metal cations commonly present in the waste waters of galvanic industries. The Langmuir model was found to describe the sorption process well, offering maximum sorption capacities of 44.4 mg Cr/g, 6.32 mg Ni/g, 5.75 mg Zn/g, 7.72 mg Cu/g, 7.28 mg Cd/g on Ca-bentonite and 49.8 mg Cr/g, 24.2 mg Ni/g, 23.1 mg Zn/g, 30.0 mg Cu/g, 26.2 mg Cd/g on Na-bentonite. The use of Na-bentonite in the purification of waste waters from Ni, Cr and acid-Zn electroplating processes was an effective treatment in small-scale and in semi-industrial-scale tests. This proves the worth of this method as an alternative to existing methods. In contrast, Nabentonite was not effective in Zn sorption from cyanide-containing waste waters.

Purification of raw bentonites and organo-bentonite preparations is sometimes required for industrial use. Zeta (electrokinetic) potential (ζ), contact angle (wettability/hydrophobicity), and surface free energy (SFE) are important surface characteristics and vary significantly according to the applied surfactant concentration when preparing organo-bentonite. Changes in these characteristics determine the stability, behavior, and efficiency of organo-bentonites in various applications such as adsorption, composite materials, and drug-delivery systems. Knowing how much surfactant should be used to prepare organo-bentonite is, therefore, critical. The purpose of the present study was to determine the effect of concentration of the cationic surfactant cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) adsorbed in organo-bentonite (prepared from two local and commercial raw bentonites with potential for use in adsorbent and composite materials) on the ζ potential, contact angle, and SFE profiles. The raw bentonites were purified using sedimentation and centrifugation techniques prior to preparation of the organo-bentonite. The purification results were evaluated in light of X-ray diffraction (XRD), cation exchange capacity (CEC), free swelling volume (FSV), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and particle-size analysis data. Most of the gangue minerals (feldspar, calcite, clinoptilolite, opal, quartz, and mica) having particle size >5 μm were removed from the raw bentonites by using a one-stage sedimentation or a Falcon gravity separator (FGS). Higher yields (68.8% and 81.3% for two bentonites) were obtained with the FGS compared to sedimentation while purification levels were almost the same. ζ changed greatly from –35 mV (and –40 mV) toward 38 mV (and 40 mV) with increasing CTAB concentrations. Similar profiles were also obtained for wettability; maximum contact angles for organo-bentonites were measured as ~72–73o, while they were 12.65 and 14.1o for two purified and unmodified bentonites. SFEs were calculated using contact-angle data, and decreased to minimum values of 41.5–43.6 mJ/m2 from 78.6–78.2 mJ/m2 upon treatment of raw bentonites with CTAB. 100–130% CEC concentration was sufficient to prepare organo-bentonites with maximum hydrophobicity and positively charged surfaces.

There is a worldwide and increasing shortage of potable fresh water. Modern water reclamation technologies can alleviate much of the problem by converting wastewater directly into drinking water, but there is public resistance to these approaches that has its basis largely in psychology. A psychological problem is encapsulated in the saying of those opposing recycled water: “toilet to tap.” We report the results of two surveys, one on a sample of over 2,000 Americans from five metropolitan areas and the second on a smaller sample of American undergraduates, both assessing attitudes to water and water purification. Approximately 13% of our adult American sample definitely refuses to try recycled water, while 49% are willing to try it, with 38% uncertain. Both disgust and contamination sensitivity predict resistance to consumption of recycled water. For a minority of individuals, no overt treatment of wastewater will make it acceptable for drinking (“spiritual contagion”), even if the resultant water is purer than drinking or bottled water. Tap water is reliably rated as significantly more desirable than wastewater that has undergone substantially greater purification than occurs with normal tap water. Framing and contagion are two basic psychological processes that influence recycled water rejection.

In polymer composites, montmorillonite nanosheets are crucial as fire retardants, reinforcers, anti-corrosives, detoxifying agents and ultraviolet-protection agents. However, the quality of montmorillonite nanosheets can be improved by optimizing the raw bentonite purification process in which undesirable phases are removed. Optimization of Iranian calcium bentonite purification for nanomontmorillonite synthesis considering various parameters based on various physical approaches to dispersion and ultrasonication was investigated; the calcium bentonite purification was performed using sodium hexametaphosphate followed by either sedimentation or centrifugation, and the nanomontmorillonite synthesis was performed using ultrasonic treatment. The effects of suspension concentration, milling type, pH and centrifugation duration and speed on the separation of various impure phases were evaluated qualitatively and optimized. The raw and purified bentonite and the synthesized nanomontmorillonite were characterized using X-ray powder diffraction, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The cation-exchange capacity was also measured in the raw and purified samples. Optimal experimental conditions in the dispersed samples were achieved at a 2.5 wt.% concentration of bentonite suspension and planetary milling at pH 7. While the ultrasonic treatment was more effective than the dispersion approach for cristobalite elimination, a smaller lateral size of the montmorillonite sheets, optimized at 0.5 wt.% concentration of the suspension, was achieved. The increased cation-exchange capacity after the purification improved the exfoliation and delamination of montmorillonite nanosheets in the presence of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide as the surfactant. The interplanar spacing of (001) planes of 15 Å in raw bentonite shifted to 21 Å and 19 Å in purified and non-purified samples, respectively, after synthesis.

The aim of this study was to develop a simple method to purify Strongyloides eggs from rat faeces using a sucrose gradient centrifugal-flotation technique. This procedure is simple, rapid and possesses a high efficiency in recovering Strongyloides eggs without faecal detritus in less than one hour, thus eliminating the use of complex apparatus and different chemical substances. The possibility of working with pure and live Strongyloides eggs opens up a wide range of future studies on the biology of this parasite. This study constitutes the first report in the scientific literature on purifying Strongyloides eggs using a sucrose density gradient.

This work reports on the use of diatomaceous earth (DE) waste and organic binder derived from Corchorus olitorius, locally known as “Mrenda” in the design of an efficient water filtration membranes. Charcoal powder was incorporated to enhance the porosity of the membrane. The firing was done at temperatures varying from 700.0 °C to 1150.0 °C. The DE waste samples comprised 79.0% silica (by mass) and 11.0% total flux content compared to porter’s clay that had 50.0% silica, 28.8% AL2O3 and 7.0% total flux content. On the other hand, the “Mrenda” binder contained 6.5% total organic matter. The use of the plant-derived binder enhanced the mechanical strength of the greenware by 52.7% and the fired membranes by 152.2%. The fabricated DE waste-based membranes were 15.0% stronger than clay-based ceramic membranes prepared under similar conditions. A sintering temperature of 900.0 °C was optimal in producing porous membranes for filtering of 4.1 liters of water per hour. The pore diameter of the membranes fabricated from DE waste only ranged between 2.0 nm – 99.0 nm. On micro-organisms filtering efficacy, the DE waste-based membranes and those fabricated with 5.0% charcoal were 99.9% and 88.4% effective in the removal of E. coli and Rotavirus respectively.

The adsorption/degradation of caffeine and irgasan from aqueous artificial solutions by using.Lignocellulosic residues (LR) impregnated with TiO2 nanoparticles was studied. Three different LR were used: bamboo (Guadua angustifolia), laurel (Cordia allidora) and moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam.), each one with three nominal particle size ranges: 75–149, 45–75, and ≤45 μm. Commercially available TiO2 nanoparticles were added to these residues using the wet impregnation technique. The chemical composition of the LR was determined according to ASTM standards. FTIR spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy were used to determine the functional groups and morphology of the modified materials, respectively. Adsorption/degradation tests were carried out in batch systems as a function of adsorbent concentration, contact time, nanoparticle content on the impregnated residues and light type influence. The maximum adsorption capacity was (37.1 mg. g-1/55.3 mg.g-1), using 40 wt.% nanoparticle-impregnated ≤45 μm laurel residues during 180 minutes, for a (7.0/0.7 g.L-1) concentration of (caffeine/irgasan). The caffeine adsorption isotherms were well described by the Langmuir and Freundlich models, while the Freundlich model describes irgasan adsorption. The use of UV radiation accelerated threefold the removal process.

We present a study of optical and electronic properties of solutions and films based on the fungi-derived pigment xylindein, extracted from decaying wood and processed without and with a simple purification step (“ethanol wash”). The “post-wash” xylindein solutions exhibited considerably lower absorption in the ultraviolet spectral range and dramatically reduced photoluminescence below 600 nm, due to removal of contaminants most likely to be fungal secondary metabolites. The “post-wash” xylindein-based films were characterized by two orders of magnitude higher charge carrier mobilities as compared to “pre-wash” samples. This underlines the importance of minimizing contaminants that disrupt the conductive xylindein network in xylindein-based electronic devices.

The dispute ‘about purification’ between the disciples of John the Baptist and a Jew (John 3.25) has to do with the priority of ethical purity as effected through baptism over the ritual washing prescribed by the Torah, e.g. before entering the Jerusalem temple. This issue is referred to in John 13.10 and 15.3, and also in P.Oxy. 840. It is presupposed here that the circle of Jesus’ disciples received John's baptism of repentance either from John the Baptist or from Jesus (John 3.22, 26; 4.1). The Gospel of John thus engages with an ongoing debate within Jewish Christianity about the obligatory nature of ritual washing.

Stimuli-responsive materials with controlled reversible wettability find diverse application as self-cleaning surfaces, tunable optical lenses and microfluidic devices. We report on an electrochemical approach for dynamic control over the wetting properties of additive-free Cu/CuxO core-shell dendritic structures. By varying the oxidation state of the oxide shell phase, the entire wettability range spanning superhydrophobicity (contact angle > 150°) to superhydrophilicity (contact angle < 10°) can be precisely adjusted in-situ. During the wetting transitions, the surface transforms from a low adhesive rolling state (lotus effect) to high adhesive pinning state (petal effect), and eventually to superhydrophilic state with a water-absorbing ability (fish scale wetting). The wetting alteration is reversible via air-drying at room temperature or mild heat drying at 100°C. The reversibly redox-driven wettability switching is demonstrated for controllable oil-water separation with efficiency higher than 98 percent.

Many researchers are investigating the extreme resilience of bacterial endospores against chemical and physical inactivating agents. The presence of vegetative cells in spore suspensions can result in overly optimistic assessment of inactivating agents; therefore, various spore purification methods have been applied to separate spores from vegetative cells prior to testing. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of two widely used spore purification methodologies on spore integrity and susceptibility to ultraviolet-A (UVA) radiation and free radicals generated from photocatalysts. Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus cereus spores were purified by procedures that involved heat shock alone or chemical washes, lysozyme treatment and heat shock (CLH). The purified spores were exposed to UVA radiation or free radicals generated by photocatalyst and susceptibility were evaluated in terms of survival ratio. The effect of purification procedure on the spore morphology was investigated with electron microscopy. The CLH purification process significantly damages spore coats and increases the susceptibility of Bacillus spores to UVA radiation and photocatalytic inactivation. It is therefore likely that the survival of CLH treated spores in extra-terrestrial environments would be less than that of the same spores purified by a less aggressive procedure.