Although Catholics were marginalized and strongly associated with Jacobitism under the early Hanoverians, the reign of George III saw a gradual assimilation of Catholics into mainstream political culture. The Vicars Apostolic of Great Britain played a key role in this process by emphasizing passivity and loyalty. The bishop who most strongly personified this Jacobite to loyalist transition was George Hay (1729-1811). A convert to Catholicism from the Scottish Episcopalian faith, Hay served the Jacobite Army as a medic in 1745 and was imprisoned following that conflict. After his conversion and subsequent ordination, Hay became coadjutor of the Lowland District of Scotland in 1769 and was promoted to the Apostolic Vicarate in 1778. Hay actively engaged with many high-profile statesmen and political thinkers, including Edmund Burke. Most notably, he constructively utilized Jacobite political theology to criticise revolutionary ideology. His public involvement in politics was most remarkable during the American and French Revolutions, when he confidently deployed the full force of counterrevolutionary doctrines that formerly alienated Catholics from the Hanoverian state. However, since the Age of Revolution presented a stark duality between monarchy and republicanism, Hay’s expressions of passive obedience and non-resistance endeared him and the Catholic Church to the British establishment.

We determined how pasture and grazing management practices affected the number of days hay was fed to cattle by season. Data were collected from a survey of Tennessee cattle producers. Days of cattle on hay varied across seasons because of variations in forage production and weather. The number of days hay was fed to cattle varied with pasture-animal management practices such as rotating pastures, forage mixtures, and weed management strategies. Having mixtures of cool- and warm-season grasses reduced the number of days on hay in the winter, spring, and summer months indicating benefits from diversified forages.

The extent and nature of spread of exotic plant species to and within Alaska by shipment of hay and straw was studied. The amounts of hay and straw imported into Alaska and the amounts and types of seed in imported and locally produced hay and straw was determined We purchased alfalfa hay, wheat straw, ryegrass straw, and timothy hay produced in Washington and Oregon (WA–OR) and locally produced straw and hay. The hay and straw were shaken over screens, and the remaining fines were mixed with sterile potting soil and incubated in the greenhouse. Forty-nine plant species were identified from hay and straw, nine of which are ranked as invasive in Alaska, including downy brome, foxtail barley, hare barley, narrowleaf hawksbeard, and quackgrass—a prohibited weed in Alaska. The number of seeds ranged from 0 to 6,205 seeds kg−1, with an average of 585 seeds kg−1, and the number of species ranged from 0 to 12, with an average of 4.2 species per bale. Crop seed comprised a large proportion of the germinated seeds in ryegrass straw, wheat straw, and timothy/brome hay (98, 78, and 62%, respectively), but was less prevalent (ranging from 0 to 38%) in the other three hay and straw crop types. Hay and straw from Alaska contained more total seeds and species than hay and straw from WA-OR, but the difference was not significant when only weed seed was used in the analysis. Alaska-grown timothy/brome hay contained significantly more total seed than alfalfa hay and wheat straw from WA–OR and Alaska-grown barley straw. The grower or distributor of the hay and straw also influenced the number of seeds and species among some crop types. Results of this study document that large numbers of alien plant species are transported by movements of hay and straw into and within Alaska.

Bermudagrass is grown extensively in the southern United States as a livestock forage. Annual grass weeds can be problematic in bermudagrass hay production, few effective control measures are available. Bermudagrass hay is harvested approximately every 28 d. Because most annual grass weeds germinate whenever environmental conditions become appropriate, control options must address a target weed population that varies in age, and may or may not have been mowed during previous harvests. Cohort age has rarely been included in control studies that combine herbicides and mowing. We tested this idea in a greenhouse study. Barnyardgrass, large crabgrass, and green foxtail were seeded on a weekly schedule. The following four treatments were initiated when five cohort ages ranging 8 to 36 d were obtained: clipping only, herbicide only, clipping followed by (fb) herbicide, and a nontreated control. Time interval between clipping and herbicide application was 5 d. Plants were clipped at 5 cm above the soil surface. Herbicide application was a tank mixture of nicosulfuron + metsulfuron at 39.3 + 10.5 g ai ha−1, respectively. Shoots were harvested 21 d after the herbicide treatment, and dry weights of the first three treatments were expressed as percent biomass reduction relative to the age-equivalent nontreated control. Regression analyses indicated a similar response pattern for all three grass species within treatments. For clipping alone, biomass reduction increased as cohort age increased. Conversely for herbicide alone, biomass reduction decreased with age. However, biomass reduction with the clipping fb herbicide treatment was only nominally influenced by grass cohort age, providing ≥ 84% biomass reduction across all cohort ages and species.

Field studies were conducted during the 2000 and 2001 growing seasons to evaluate imazapic plus 2,4-D for weed control and bermudagrass tolerance. Imazapic at 140 g ai/ha plus 2,4-D at 280 g ai/ha or greater controlled dallisgrass at least 82% and provided at least 90% control of field sandbur, johnsongrass, and field mint. A mixed stand of Texas panicum and large crabgrass was controlled less than 75% and bahiagrass less than 25% with all rates of imazapic plus 2,4-D. Coastal bermudagrass injury was greater than 24% at three of four locations and Tifton 85 injury was greater than 50% at 3 wk after treatment with rates of imazapic plus 2,4-D as low as 70 plus 140 g/ha. Coastal bermudagrass yield was reduced at the first cutting with imazapic plus 2,4-D at 140 plus 210 g/ha and 240 plus 420 g/ha. Imazapic plus 2,4-D at 200 plus 350 g/ha reduced Tifton 85 forage production at the first two cuttings.

The objectives of this study were to evaluate the influence of diet composition on ruminal parameters, more particularly redox potential (Eh). Four Holstein dry dairy cows, fitted with ruminal cannulas, were allocated in a 4 × 4 Latin square design. They were given four experimental hay-based diets D0, D25, D42 and D56 consisting of 0%, 25%, 42% and 56% of ground wheat and barley concentrate mixture, respectively. They were fed at a daily feeding rate of 8.0 kg DM per cow during a 24-day experimental period (a 21-day diet adaptation, three consecutive days of measurement and sampling). The physicochemical parameters, such as pH and Eh, were measured and Clark’s exponent (rH) was calculated from 1 h before feeding to 8 h after feeding at 1-h interval. Samples of ruminal fluid were taken at 0, 1, 2, 4, 6 and 8 h after feeding for the determination of volatile fatty acid (VFA) and ammonia N (NH3-N) concentrations. Ruminal bacterial populations were also studied by means of capillary electrophoresis single-strand conformation polymorphism (CE-SSCP) technique to focus on the structure of the ruminal microbiota and the diversity index was calculated. Mean ruminal Eh and rH were not modified by the concentrate-to-forage ratio and averaged – 210 mV and 6.30, respectively, across diets. The pH decreased slightly by 0.10 pH unit between treatments D0 and D56 with an average of 6.58. Nevertheless, the time during which physicochemical parameters remained at nadir value after feeding varied with diets: 2 and 7 h for D0 and 6 and 5 h for D56, respectively for pH and Eh. Moreover, fermentative parameters were altered by treatments: total VFA and NH3-N were greater in D56 (72.2 mM and 17.5 mg/100 ml) compared with D0 (65.2 mM and 14.2 mg/100 ml). However, neither the structure of bacterial populations of the rumen nor the diversity index (Shannon) was altered by treatments.

The digestibility of horse feeds and rations can be determined using different techniques such as calculations based on the chemical composition, in vivo or in vitro methods. The marker methods overcome difficulties like discomfort for the animals and longer experimental times encountered using the ingesta/egesta method. In field conditions, a natural indigestible marker like acid-insoluble ash (AIA), with no changes in the normal ration, could be a very useful tool for digestibility trials. A group of six standardbred horses was used in a set of seven apparent digestibility trials. The diets were based on a first-cut meadow hay added to three different cereals (barley for trials 1 and 2; oats for trials 3 and 5 and corn for trials 6 and 7), the hay : concentrate ratio being 60 : 40 or 70 : 30 on a dry matter basis. Feedstuffs and faeces were analysed to determine the AIA content, using 2N HCl or 4N HCl technique. No differences about AIA concentration were found between the two methods for means and accuracy in each diet. Digestion coefficients for each diet did not differ with AIA method, even if in some trials interfering factors consistently lowered the overall values. Consequently, the AIA 2N HCl can be considered the easier and cheaper method to state apparent digestibility in field conditions, and a good tool for digestibility trials in horses fed hay-based diets.

Effects of including silage in the diet on volatile compound profiles and their modification during ripening of Montasio cheeses were examined. Twelve farms were selected and grouped according the type of forage in the ration: hay-based diets (four farms); hay and corn silage-based diets (four farms); and diets based on hay, corn silage and grass silages (four farms). For cheesemaking, 1000 kg of milk collected from two consecutive milkings was sampled from each farm and processed in the same cheese factory. Cheeses were ripened in the same cellar, in controlled humidity (78–85% relative humidity) and temperature (9–12°C), until analysis. After 68 (62–74), 200 (194–206) and 360 (354–366) d of ripening, a cheese from each batch was analysed for moisture, protein and fat, volatile fatty acids (VFA) and volatile compounds. These latter were analysed by dynamic reverse carrier gas headspace gas chromatographic mass spectrometry (GC-MS) technique, scanning from m/z 29 to m/z 300 at 0·5 s cycle time. Total and individual VFA contents of cheeses did not differ between the different dietary treatments and increased linearly (P<0·01) during ripening, indicating that there were no appreciable defects of fermentation. Sixty-two volatile compounds were identified in the cheese samples: 12 aldehydes, 9 ketones, 16 alcohols, 17 esters, 2 hydrocarbons, 4 sulphur-containing compounds and 2 terpenes. Diet significantly affected the amount of total alcohols, ethanol, isobutanol, 1-penten-3-ol, 2-methyl-1-butanol and the sum of all the volatile compounds. Significant variations of 33 volatile compounds (9 aldehydes, 4 ketones, 6 alcohols, 10 esters, 1 hydrocarbons, 2 sulphur containing compounds, and 1 terpene) were observed during ripening. These results suggest that the influence of diet composition on volatile compounds of matured cheeses are related more to effects on microbial and chemical fermentations in cheese during ripening rather than to a direct transfer of molecules from milk.

Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum cv. Alamo) standing hay was cut and offered to 16 rams. The rams were randomly allocated to one of the following levels of feeding: 0·5; 1·0; 1·5 and 2·0 ✕ maintenance. The forage was offered twice a day to the animals; no supplements were given. The animals were individually penned and fitted with faeces collection bags. After 8 days for adaptation, in vivo dry matter apparent digestibility (DMD) and proportion of blades and stem + sheath of the consumed forage were measured for 8 days. DMD varied from 0·310 (0·5) to 0·391 (2·0) and the proportion of the blade fraction in the diet from 0·44 (0·5) to 0·78 (2·0). The short-term intake rate (STIR) of rams was measured for 5 days. The animals were divided randomly into four blocks, with one ram of each treatment in each block. After 4 h without food and 15 min intervals between blocks, the amount of forage consumed during 4 min of active eating was measured. The amounts consumed were (in g DM per min per 50 kg live weight): 0·5: 8·2; 1·0: 7·8; 1·5: 5·3 and 2·0: 5·3 (0·5 = 1·0 > 1·5 = 2·0; P < 0·01). The results show that offer rate of P. virgatum affects the blade: stem + sheath ratio of intake and, therefore, the nutritive value of the diet. Level of feeding before measuring STIR influences the amount of forage consumed during the test.

The effects on milk yield and feeding behaviour of offering ryegrass silage (r), ryegrass and white clover silage (c), or grass hay (h) supplements were examined for cows grazing a ryegrass pasture (R) or a ryegrass and white clover pasture (C). The chemical composition of the two silages was similar but the hay contained less crude protein. Cows grazing R pasture spent longer feeding on c than r silages, and those consuming the c silage spent less time grazing than those consuming r silage. The cows grazing the C pasture spent longer feeding on r than c silages, and those consuming the r silage spent less time grazing than those consuming c silage. The cows’ intake of hay dry matter (DM) was less than silage DM and it was taken into the mouth at a slower rate, masticated more ana swallowed less frequently than silage. Milk yield and composition were not affected by the type of supplementary forage or pasture type. Thus cows grazing pastures of the two sward types spent longer feeding on forages with dissimilar botanical composition if given the option. However, as this reduced the time that they spend grazing, there was no effect on milk production.

In order to examine the effects of diets, with two hay to concentrate ratios and two forms of concentrates on the rumen fermentation of dry sheep and milk production of lactating ewes, three trials were conducted.

In the first trial, four wether sheep, each fitted with a rumen cannula, were used in a 4 × 4 Latin-square design, by allocating them to one of four diets with different hay to concentrate ratio and concentrate type. The diets consisted of 0·5 kg hay and 0·75 kg either starchy (HRSC) or fibrous (HRFC) concentrates, or 0·25 kg hay and 1·0 kg either starchy (LRSC) or fibrous (LRFC) concentrates. The diets were designed to provide similar intakes of energy and crude protein. Volatile fatty acids (VFA) and ammonia concentrations, pH values and number of protozoa were determined in wether rumen fluid.

Total VFA concentration was not significantly affected by diet but acetate and n-butyrate proportions were higher (P < 0·002) on the higher forage diets and propionate higher (P < 0·002) on the lower forage diets. pH values and number of protozoa in sheep rumen fluid were unaffected by treatment, while ammonia concentration was lower (P < 0·05) on the HRFC diet.

In the second trial, 60 lactating dairy ewes were allocated to one of four diets for weeks 11 to 15 of lactation (period 1). Ewes were given food daily: 0·87 kg hay and 1·3 kg either HRFC or HRSC concentrates, or 0·4 kg hay and 1·6 kg either LRFC or LRSC concentrates. During weeks 16 to 20 of lactation (period 2), the ewes were given the same amount and type of concentrates but hay was supplied ad libitum and this period formed the third trial.

Milk yield and milk composition were affected significantly by hay to concentrate ratio with the lower hay to concentrate ratio resulting in a significant increase in milk yield, milk protein efficiency, protein content and protein and lactose yields. Milk fat content and yield were reduced. Hay intake was proportionately greater (P < 0·002) by 0·15 to 0·20 with starchy than with fibrous concentrate diets in period 2. Problems such as acidosis or ‘off-food’ periods in ewes given the low hay to concentrate ratio diets were not observed, irrespective of concentrate type.

Five bales were randomly chosen from a stack of 6-month-old barn-stored hay. Four 2·5-kg sections were taken from each bale and subjected to one of four different water wetting treatments, 0-min soak, 10-min soak, 30-min soak and 80-min steaming. Post wetting, the sections were shaken for 9 min under a Negretti LS45F personal dust sampler which sucked-in any particles released into the surrounding air. The sampler contents were then analysed for respirable particle numbers (particles < 5um), and the hay subsampled and analysed for water-soluable carbohydrate, N, Na, K, Ca, P, Mg, Zn, Mn, Fe and Cu. The steaming and soaking treatments all proportionately reduced respirable particle numbers by more than 0·93 of those present in the dry hay. Soaking for 10 min and 30 min significantly reduced levels of P, K, Mg, Na and Cu, whereas the steamed samples showed no loss of nutrients from the levels present in the dry hay. Thus in terms of reducing respirable particle numbers and conserving nutrient levels, steaming for 80 min is the most effective treatment when preparing hay fodder for horses.

Eight dairy farms located in western Ontario were surveyed as part of an ongoing comparative economic study. The sampled farms had been using organic methods for an average of 5.5 y ears and, therefore, were beyond the “transition” stage. Diversified cropping systems were characteristic of these farms, with most crop products (grain and straw) being used directly by the farms' livestock enterprises. Crop rotations were complex, and generally involved sequences of forages and small grains into which cover crops such as oilseed radish and red clover were integrated. Weed control, year-round soil cover, and production of feed and bedding all contributed to the design of cropping systems. Both solid and liquid manures were composted before application. No feed additives or growth hormones were used, but homeopathic remedies, probiotics, and antibiotics were commonly used. The high cost of synthetic fertilizer and concern for the environment were the main reasons given by the f armers f or adopting organic methods.

The need to complement in vitro gas production measurements with residue determination is demonstrated by the recalculation and reassessment of published data on in vitro gas production, in sacco degradabilities and voluntary dry matter intake (DMI). The in sacco degradability — gas volume ratio was determined at 24 and 48 h of incubation, termed partitioning factor (PF) and combined with rate and extent parameters of in sacco degradability and in vitro gas production to predict DMI. In vitro gas production and in sacco degradability characteristics (a + b) and c as described by the equation y = a + b(1−ect) explained 0·373 and 0·668 respectively of the variation in DMI of 19 legume and grass hays. The complementation of gas production parameters by the PF24 increased the R2 value to 0·744 with PF24 accounting for 0·407 of the variation in DMI, the rate of gas production (c) for 0·218 and the extent of gas production (a + b) for 0·119 of the variation in DMI. As a single parameter, PF48 showed the highest correlation (R2 = 0·597) with DMI but the combination of PF4S with rate and extent of in sacco or in vitro gas production measurements did not improve the correlation further, probably due to an intercorrelation between rates of fermentation and PF4S. Hays which were degraded at faster rates had higher PF values indicating proportionally higher microbial yield and lower short-chain fatty acid production per unit substrate degraded. Generally, hays with high in sacco degradabilities but proportionally low gas production i.e. hays with high PF values showed higher DMI.

Four bales of hay were chosen from a stack of hay, barn-stored for 6 months. Each bale was subdivided into four 2·5 kg sections and one section from each bale was subjected to one of four water soaking treatments: 0, 0·5, 3 or 12 h. Post treatment, the samples were shaken for 9 min under a Negretti LS45F personal dust sampler which sampled the surrounding air. The samples were than analysed for levels of respirable particules < 5 μm in size and for amounts of sodium (Na), potassium (K), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca) and nitrogen (N). Soaking for 30 min reduced the number of respirable particles by about 90% but also reduced the Na, K and P content of the hay. Soaking for a longer period, at least up to 12 h, did not give a significant further reduction in number of respirable particles but there was loss of Mg and further losses in Na, K, and P. These results clearly indicate that soaking for 30 min is sufficient to reduce the respirable challenge with minimum nutrient loss.

Six cereal straws and two traditional hays were used to study the relationship between voluntary dry matter (DM) intake and chemical composition and ruminal degradation characteristics. The voluntary DM intake was measured during 60 days using Barbarin adult ewes given food individually in four groups of six animals. The forages were offered to the ewes twice daily and were supplemented with 10 g DM of soya-bean meal per kg M0·75 per day and 30 g per ewe per day of a commercial mixture of minerals and vitamins. The chemical composition and the leaf/stem (L/S) ratio of the forages were determined. Their ruminal degradation characteristics were measured by using the nylon bag technique according to the exponential model Dg = a + b (1 – e−ct). Crude protein contents of straws ranged from 22 to 35 g/kg DM and that of hays from 35 to 57 g/kg DM. The corresponding values of L/S ratio varied from 0·68 to 0·88. The voluntary DM intake was highly variable and the hays were ingested at greater amounts than the straws, although their degradable (b) and their rate of digestion (c) were not significantly different (P > 0·05).

Significant relationships were established between voluntary DM intake and the neutral-detergent fibre (R2 = −0·72; P < 0·001), acid-detergent fibre (R2 = −0·75; P < 0·001) and a values (R2 = 0·83; P < 0·001). The precision of the prediction was significantly improved using ruminal degradation characteristics (Syx = 4·42) compared with the chemical composition (Syx = 5·60).

The study compared using chemical components (i.e. crude protein (CP), neutral- and acid-detergent fibre or lignin (NDF, ADF and ADL) g/kg dry matter (DM), the in vitro digestibility (Tilley and Terry, 1963), the in situ (nylon bag) DM degradation (g/100 g DM) and gas production (ml/200 mg DM) techniques to predict voluntary daily intake (g DM per kg M0.75) and in vivo apparent DM digestibility (DMD) of 10 graminaceous hays individually offered ad libitum to four Merino male sheep. Gas production or DM degradation were determined after 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 or 96 h incubation and their characteristics described using the equation p = a + b (1 – e-ct). Intake and in vivo DMD of the hays were variable and poorly related (r = 0·52; P > 0·05). The in situ DM degradation was significantly (Y < 0·05) related to in vivo apparent DMD at 48 to 96 h incubation (i = 0·76 to 0·75) and to intake at 24 to 96 h (r = 0·71 to 0·75) incubation. However, fibre components, the in vitro digestibility or gas production were either related to daily intake or in vivo apparent DMD, but not to both on the same occasion. Accurate prediction of intake (r = 0·90; P < 0·05) and in vivo apparent DMD (r = 0·88; P < 0·069) were achieved using NDF, ADF, ADL and CP in a multiple regression. Using the (a + b) and the rate (c) of in situ DM degradation, both in vivo apparent DMD (r = 0·77; P < 0·05) and intake (r = 0·83; P < 0·05) were predicted with accuracy. However, using the (a + b) and (c) of gas production, only intake was predicted accurately (r = 0·87; P < 0·01). The lower performance of the gas test was attributed to the small contribution to gas production and higher buffering capacity resulting from protein fermentation. When data of the graminaceous and other data from leguminous hays were combined, the most accurate prediction of both intake and apparent digestibility was by using characteristics of in situ DM degradation followed by those of gas production. The latter was more accurate than using chemical components or the in vitro digestibility. Addition of CP in the multiple regression improved the prediction of intake and in vivo apparent DMD from characteristics of gas production. It was concluded that despite the need to overcome the problem of protein fermentation in the gas test, accurate prediction of both intake and apparent digestibility can be achieved simply from the degradation characteristics of foods.

A study was carried out to examine the effects of method of grass conservation on intake and apparent digestibility by sheep and rate of degradation in the rumen of cattle. Thirty-six hoggets were arranged in a three-period partial change-over design involving nine treatments. The treatments consisted of fresh herbage or herbage from the same pasture which was ensiled for 2, 4, 7, 10, 20 and 41 days in round bales or herbage from the same pasture conserved as hay or ensiled in a bunker silo for 51 days. In addition the rate of dry-matter disappearance in the rumen for each treatment was determined using three rumen fistulated steers. The fresh and ensiled treatments had been frozen prior to feeding. Results from the study showed that the dry-matter intakes, corrected for losses of volatile compounds, of material ensiled in round bales, was increasingly depressed with period of ensiling up to 20 days after ensiling. Intakes of digestible energy followed a similar trend. Regression analysis indicated that reductions in intake with ensiling were mainly due to increases in ammonia N and n-butyric acid concentration, while changes in pH, water-soluble carbohydrate and acetic acid concentration also influenced intake. The differences in intakes of dry matter and digestible energy between fresh herbage and herbage from the bunker silo were not significant. The ensiling of herbage in round bales had little effect on organic matter apparent digestibility but led to an increase in nitrogen apparent digestibility and effective degradability when calculated at rumen outflow rates of 0·05 per h and 0·08 per h. Conservation of grass as hay led to a reduction in the intake, apparent digestibility and effective degradability of dry matter.