The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on the health of millions of people worldwide, and many manifest new or persistent symptoms long after the initial onset of the infection. One of the leading symptoms of long-COVID is cognitive impairment, which includes memory loss, lack of concentration, and brain fog. Understanding the nature and underlying mechanisms of cognitive impairment in long-COVID is important for developing preventive and therapeutic interventions.

Our present study investigated functional connectivity (FC) changes in patients with long-COVID and their associations with cognitive impairment. Resting-state functional MRI data from 60 long-COVID patients and 52 age- and sex-matched healthy controls were analyzed using seed-based functional connectivity analysis.

We found increased FC between the right caudate nucleus and both the left and right precentral gyri in long-COVID patients compared with healthy controls. In addition, elevated FC was observed between the right anterior globus pallidus and posterior cingulate cortex as well as the right temporal pole in long-COVID patients. Importantly, the magnitude of FC between the caudate and the left precentral gyrus showed a significant negative correlation with Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) scores and a negative correlation with Trail Making Test B performance in the patient group.

Patients with long-COVID present enhanced FC between the caudate and the left precentral gyrus. Furthermore, those FC alterations are related to the severity of cognitive impairment, particularly in the domain of executive functions.

Up to 30% of people infected with SARS-CoV-2 report disabling symptoms 2 years after the infection. Over 100 persistent symptoms have been associated with Post-Acute COVID-19 Symptoms (PACS) and/or long-COVID, showing a significant clinical heterogeneity. To develop effective, patient-targeted treatment, a better understanding of underlying mechanisms is needed. Epigenetics has helped elucidating the pathophysiology of several health conditions and it might help unravelling inter-individual differences in patients with PACS and long-COVID. As accumulating research is exploring epigenetic mechanisms in PACS and long-COVID, we systematically summarized the available literature on the topic.

We interrogated five databases (Medline, Embase, Web of Science, Scopus and medXriv/bioXriv) and followed PRISMA and SWiM guidelines to report our results.

Eight studies were included in our review. Six studies explored DNA methylation in PACS and/or long-COVID, while two studies explored miRNA expression in long-COVID associated with lung complications. Sample sizes were mostly small and study quality was low or fair. The main limitation of the included studies was a poor characterization of the patient population that made a homogeneous synthesis of the literature challenging. However, studies on DNA methylation showed that mechanisms related to the immune and the autonomic nervous system, and cell metabolism might be implicated in the pathophysiology of PACS and long-COVID.

Epigenetic changes might help elucidating PACS and long-COVID underlying mechanisms, aid subgrouping, and point towards tailored treatments. Preliminary evidence is promising but scarce. Biological and epigenetic research on long-COVID will benefit millions of people suffering from long-COVID and has the potential to be transferable and benefit other conditions as well, such as Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS). We urge future research to employ longitudinal designs and provide a better characterization of included patients.

There is considerable evidence of cognitive impairment post COVID-19, especially in individuals with long-COVID symptoms, but limited research objectively evaluating whether such impairment attenuates or resolves over time, especially in young and middle-aged adults.

Follow-up assessments (T2) of cognitive function (processing speed, attention, working memory, executive function, memory) and mental health were conducted in 138 adults (18–69 years) who had been assessed 6 months earlier (T1). Of these, 88 had a confirmed history of COVID-19 at T1 assessment (≥20 days post-diagnosis) and were also followed-up on COVID-19-related symptoms (acute and long-COVID); 50 adults had no known COVID-19 history at any point up to their T2 assessment.

From T1 to T2, a trend-level improvement occurred in intra-individual variability in processing speed in the COVID, relative to the non-COVID group. However, longer response/task completion times persisted in participants with COVID-19-related hospitalisation relative to those without COVID-19-related hospitalisation and non-COVID controls. There was a significant reduction in long-COVID symptom load, which correlated with improved executive function in non-hospitalised COVID-19 participants. The COVID group continued to self-report poorer mental health, irrespective of hospitalisation history, relative to non-COVID group.

Although some cognitive improvement has occurred over a 6-month period in young and middle-aged COVID-19 survivors, cognitive impairment persists in those with a history of COVID-19-related hospitalisation and/or long-COVID symptoms. Continuous follow-up assessments are required to determine whether cognitive function improves or possibly worsens, over time in hospitalised and long-COVID participants.

There is increasing evidence for cognitive function to be negatively impacted by COVID-19. There is, however, limited research evaluating cognitive function pre- and post-COVID-19 using objective measures.

We examined processing speed, attention, working memory, executive function and memory in adults (≤69 years) with a history of COVID-19 (n = 129, none acutely unwell), compared to those with no known history of COVID-19 (n = 93). We also examined cognitive changes in a sub-group of COVID (n = 30) and non-COVID (n = 33) participants, compared to their pre-COVID-19 pandemic level.

Cross-sectionally, the COVID group showed significantly larger intra-individual variability in processing speed, compared to the non-COVID group. The COVID sub-group also showed significantly larger intra-individual variability in processing speed, compared to their pre-COVID level; no significant change occurred in non-COVID participants over the same time scale. Other cognitive indices were not significantly impacted in the cross-sectional or within-subjects investigations, but participants (n = 20) who had needed hospitalisation due to COVID-19 showed poor attention and executive function relative to those who had not required hospitalisation (n = 109). Poor health and long-COVID symptoms correlated with poor cognitive function across domains in the COVID group.

The findings indicate a limited cognitive impact of COVID-19 with only intra-individual variability in processing speed being significantly impacted in an adult UK sample. However, those who required hospitalisation due to COVID-19 severity and/or experience long-COVID symptoms display multifaceted cognitive impairment and may benefit from repeated cognitive assessments and remediation efforts.