This chapter reviews media comparison research on the effects of various immersive technologies, including virtual reality and two types of mixed reality, augmented reality and augmented virtuality, on learning outcomes, as well as some boundary conditions for these effects. In sum, previous meta-analyses report that low immersion virtual reality (d = .22–.41) and low immersion augmented reality (d = .46–.68) improve learning outcomes compared to other instructional media, with small-to-medium-sized effects. However, high immersion virtual reality (median d = .10) and high immersion augmented reality (median d = .16) are less promising. Research on augmented virtuality is sparse, but shows positive effects on learning (median d = .45) based on a few studies. Theoretical implications of these immersive technologies regarding cognitive frameworks, as well as their practical implications on the future of technology in the classroom, are discussed.

The sudden emergence of a lethal virus necessitating social distancing required billions of students worldwide to engage in various forms of e-learning, the effects of which are currently unknown. In some instructional contexts, the overall proportion of e-learning relative to in-person classes may continue on an upward trajectory. A long-history of media comparison research shows that learning is less a function of the delivery medium and more reflective of instructional methods that support human cognitive processes. In this chapter I emphasize evidence-based e-learning methods that (1) manage mental load, (2) promote productive engagement, and (3) offer feedback that guides learners to improved responses. I discuss the use of these methods to guide the design of digital explanations, engagement opportunities, and feedback in synchronous and asynchronous e-learning. I also discuss emerging digital learning opportunities in the form of interactive virtual reality and learning games.

Computer games for learning use multimedia elements such as animation and spoken or printed text to foster learning of academic skills or knowledge. Research on game-based learning can be categorized into three research genres: value added research, cognitive consequences research, and media comparison research. Value added research seeks to determine which game features promote learning. Cognitive consequences research seeks to determine whether students learn anything useful playing an off-the-shelf game. Media comparison research seeks to determine whether students learn better from computer games than from conventional media. Future research is needed that adds replication studies to the research base, determines moderating and mediating factors, examines how to implement games in learning contexts and how to balance motivational and cognitive features in games, and provides practical recommendations.