Sacred groves (SGs) of India are islets of forests providing ecosystem and spiritual services to man. Studies suggest that SGs are deteriorating on their quality due to urbanization, invasive species, land-use change, and religious modernization. We explored diversity, community, and abundance of overall and different functional groups of litter ants, including Anoplolepis gracilipes – an invasive ant – on paired SG-neighbouring home garden (HG) sites in rural and urban landscape to (a) assess the quality of SGs and (b) examine whether the variation in ant community of the two habitats was predicted by urbanization and abundance of A. gracilipes. We considered species and local contribution to β-diversity to identify species and sites crucial for conservation of sites. Abundance and richness of overall ants, proportional trap incidence of species, and abundance of A. gracilipes were similar on SG and HG, but species diversity and abundance of certain ant functional groups were higher on SG. Ant community of SG was different from HG, but was not affected by urbanization. A. gracilipes and rural SGs contributed the most to β diversity. A. gracilipes gave little pressure on native ant community. The study concludes that SGs, despite invaded by A. gracilipes, have potential for conserving biodiversity.

Sacred groves (SG) of south India are either relics of primary or secondary forests or swamps, worshipped by the local communities, and distributed in the countrysides (CS) and forest landscapes of India. Studies suggest that SGs harbour a biodiversity different from that of adjoining CS and have a structural similarity to protected forests. Studies also suggest a negative effect of structural complexity of forests on predation. Considering these two expectations, we compared the predation of artificial caterpillars inside SGs and CSs with the hypothesis that predation will be less in SG than in CS. Examining the predation marks, we identified the likely predator and scored the intensity of predation. Bite marks of arthropods, birds, lizards and mammals were observed on caterpillars of both habitats. The predation rate and predation intensity were similar for overall predators and for each predator taxon in both habitats, despite the fact that mammal predation was mostly encountered in SGs. Because the proportion of predated caterpillars is not different between habitats and the intensity of predation is high in SGs, we conclude that SGs may not have a quality of the expected standard.

Biocultural and indigenous approaches to conservation, such as the sacred forests of India, are increasingly being recognized and valued. At these sites, the ecological aspects as well as the local community management and cultural significance of the landscape contribute to conservation success. From 2012 to 2015, we investigated five sacred forests in western Odisha (India) that varied in size from 1 to 1000 ha. Through interviews with 81 residents, we explored the types of groves, their use and management approaches. We investigated levels of grove disturbance and plant use with botanical survey methods. Some groves experience pressures from annual pilgrimage visitors, and we documented the relative impacts of pilgrims and other activities using ethnographic methods. Community participation or management by the Forest Department alone has not been completely effective in conserving these sacred natural sites; however, collaborative work can contribute to successful conservation. Continued community involvement is key to future biodiversity conservation in the sacred groves.

The role of sacred forest patches in maintaining biodiversity and offering ecosystem services is well established, though the functional aspects are understated. This study aims to understand the functional diversity of tree reproductive traits of sacred forest patches in an altered landscape. Twenty-five sacred groves in Palakkad region, Kerala, India, were chosen to assess the distribution of five reproductive traits – pollination mechanism, fruit size, seed number, seed size and dispersal mechanism – among the tree populations. The data matrix was analysed for overall trait-state distribution, functional diversity assessment and its relation to environmental parameters and disturbance in the area. A total of 87 woody species was documented with a fairly homogenized distribution of fruit and seed characters, with ≥50% of the recorded trait states in each grove in comparison to control plot. Pollination and dispersal mechanisms are dominated by a single guild. e.g. insects and birds, often generalist in nature. Functional richness had a strong correlation with Shannon's index and disturbance, but evenness and divergence were weakly related with others. Comparative assessment with null model showed no significant deviations from expected results indicating apparent lack of habitat filtering or resource competition among sacred groves. The trait homogenization and overall simplification of the grove biota is perhaps an outcome of rapid land-use change and its consequences on specialist members. This study shows sacred groves are important for maintaining a plethora of functional traits in the altered landscape. However, the prevalence of generalist mediators indicates maintenance of basic ecological functions in the landscape without support for specialist ones.

We examined attitudes towards forest and wildlife among Rabha, Bodo and Rajbongshi communities from three villages in the Chakrashila Wildlife Sanctuary of western Assam, India. The study was conducted through open-ended and structured interviews, focus group discussions, and participatory rural appraisal. The respondents identified availability of forest products, biodiversity conservation and the aesthetic beauty of the forest as the major justifications for the establishment of Chakrashila as a protected area. They also believed that people and wildlife could coexist peacefully, although some respondents did not have a cordial relationship with Forest Department staff. Most respondents were favourably disposed towards the golden langur Trachypithecus geei because it did not harm anybody or damage crops, and because of its shining coat and its exalted status in their religious beliefs. They were antagonistic towards the rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta because of its crop-raiding habits, although they were averse to killing it. Most respondents did not want to relocate because they lacked skills and resources and had associations with the forest, where they maintained sacred groves and observed taboos on hunting and plant resource extraction. Thus, the attitudes of the communities were governed not only by their material needs and priorities but also by their deep-rooted cultural–religious bond with the forest. These matters would benefit from being incorporated into forest management strategies in developing countries.

There is increased international interest in religiously based restrictions on land and forest stand use. However, the extent to which so-called sacred groves represent earlier forest ecosystems, and their possible role in biodiversity conservation, are interrelated and complex issues, and neglected in the context of Ghanaian savannahs, which are believed to be in transition from a forested past. Geographical information system (GIS) analysis of time-series images, aerial photographs, statistical analysis of ecological field data and social surveys were used to investigate the Ghanaian savannah. Sacred groves were found to be similar in plant species content and structure to the deciduous forest of southern Ghana. Between 1960 and 1996, these groves experienced far fewer forest losses than unprotected tree stands (<20%, as opposed to up to 100%). Non-sacred groves also contained lower plant species richness and higher numbers of invasive species such as neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss). Sacred groves, while dependent on respect for religion, local cultural structures and individual peer pressure, offer a role that may support and also be supported by official conservation efforts.