Central African great ape populations are in serious decline as a result of poaching, habitat loss and disease. Reliable estimates of population size are urgently needed for informed management action. We estimate the abundance and distribution of central chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes and western lowland gorilla Gorilla gorilla gorilla populations in the c. 11,000 km2 Dja-Ngoyla Complex in Cameroon, a critical component of the Tri National Dja-Odzala-Minkébé (TRIDOM) transboundary landscape, which covers 178,000 km2. We compare our results with previous site estimates and with other population estimates from the region. We completed 1,096.64 km of line transects (n = 559) in 2021 using the standing-crop nest counts method. The Dja-Ngoyla Complex supported c. 11,787 great apes. Chimpanzee abundance was significantly higher in Dja, and Ngoyla-Mintom supported 71% of the gorilla population. Thirty-seven per cent of the gorilla population and 17% of the chimpanzee population occurred in logging concessions. There was no significant change in the species’ abundance in Dja Faunal Reserve compared to our 2018 estimate using the same methodology. The chimpanzee population density was much higher in Dja and Ngoyla Faunal Reserves compared to other protected areas in the region. There was large variation in great ape densities across logging concessions, and those with implemented management certification schemes supported higher densities. This study also highlights the high risk of Dja’s great ape population becoming isolated. Promoting forest management certification to strengthen wildlife and habitat protection in all logging concessions in the Complex is urgently needed and will also allow local communities to benefit from these forests.

Guerrilla rewilding, the unsanctioned release of species into the wild, is a controversial activity criticized by most conservation professionals. In this Forum article we argue that despite this criticism, it has played a significant but underexplored role in the UK’s rewilding movement. Using examples including butterfly species, goshawk Astur gentilis, wild boar Sus scrofa, beaver Castor fiber and lynx Lynx lynx, we argue that examining these guerrilla rewilding acts provides valuable insights into public preferences for certain species, their perceived acceptability, and the ways in which they shape knowledge and practices of human–wildlife coexistence. However, our analysis also suggests that in some cases guerrilla rewilding can undermine the very species it seeks to restore. Animals released without preparation or monitoring, particularly those habituated to human presence, often lack the ability to survive independently, leading to welfare issues, human–wildlife conflict and wider ecological impacts. Furthermore, by circumventing the social and collaborative dimensions of rewilding, these actions risk deepening divisions among stakeholders, which are critical to ensuring long-term success. Nonetheless, this type of rewilding can also potentially trigger more positive emotions of recovery whilst raising the species’ profile. We find that guerrilla rewilding has in some cases influenced formal rewilding practice and the broader discourse in the UK, in stark contrast to the official government position on nature recovery. This paper draws together some key learning points and highlights areas for future research on guerrilla rewilding.

The Louisiana black bear Ursus americanus luteolus, a subspecies of the subtropical south-central USA, was protected by the U.S. Endangered Species Act in 1992 but removed from coverage in 2016 based on the alleged presence of two viable native populations that had begun to interbreed. However, historical and genetic data show that one population is descended from bears captured in the U.S. state of Minnesota, far to the north, and released on the property of a hunting club in Louisiana. A recent judicial decision ignored those data, deferring to deceptive government claims and effectively dooming the native subspecies to genomic extinction through hybridization with the introduced population.

The tiger Panthera tigris is an apex predator categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. The availability of sufficient prey is a key requirement for its survival. The tiger diet landscape refers to a dynamic ecological picture of the diverse prey species consumed by tigers in a specific region, reflecting the complex relationships between tiger populations and their prey. It can provide information on the tiger’s preferred prey as well as the conservation status of prey species across boundaries. To draw up a road map for the conservation and management of tigers across the Indian subcontinent, where the Bengal tiger Panthera tigris tigris occurs, we identified which prey species make up the majority of the tiger’s diet and answered questions relating to prey density, distribution and conservation status. We reviewed 48 studies published over 30 years (1992–2022) on tiger diet and prey availability. We recorded c. 30 mammalian prey species, with chital Axis axis, sambar Rusa unicolor, wild boar Sus scrofa, Tarai gray langur Semnopithecus hector, northern red muntjac Muntiacus vaginalis and domestic livestock contributing c. 90% of the total relative biomass consumed. Nearly half of the prey species are of conservation concern (categorized as Near-Threatened, Vulnerable or Endangered on the IUCN Red List), and 11 prey species are listed on CITES Appendix I. As part of a sustainable tiger conservation road map, we suggest that the tiger’s major prey species should be incorporated into government protection schemes.

The dhole Cuon alpinus is a large canid that is categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List and at risk of global extinction. Information on the spatial distribution of suitable habitat is important for conservation planning but is largely unavailable. We quantified the spatial distribution of potential range as well as the relative probability of dhole occurrence across large parts of the species’ global range. We used the MaxEnt algorithm to produce a multi-scale environmental niche model based on 24 environmental variables and dhole occurrence data from 12 countries. We identified three regions where dhole conservation should be focused: western India, central India, and across the Himalayan foothills through Southeast Asia. Connectivity between suitable areas was poor, so coordinated action among these regions should be a priority. For instance, transboundary dhole conservation initiatives across the Himalayas from southern China, Myanmar, north-east India, Nepal and Bhutan need to be initiated. We also highlight the value of improving dhole population viability on unprotected land and increasing monitoring in the northern parts of its historic distribution, in particular in areas within mainland China.

Indonesia is home to a high number of Critically Endangered land vertebrates. Examining the research on these species is important to improve biodiversity-related policy and management and to provide insight into knowledge gaps. We conducted a comprehensive review of 2,188 publications published during 2000–2021 that studied the Critically Endangered vertebrate species of Indonesia, to understand variations in the level of research on each species and the proportion of research carried out within Indonesia and by Indonesian researchers. Over this 22-year period, research on Critically Endangered species in Indonesia increased, but > 50% of this research was carried out by researchers based outside Indonesia. Moreover, the quantity of research was uneven across taxonomic classes, indicating an imbalance in research attention. Most publications during the period were on mammals (1,573 publications), followed by reptiles (310), birds (300) and amphibians (5). We identified 17 species for which there were no significant publications, suggesting little attention has been given to these species. We highlight three key issues: limited Indonesian authorship, taxonomic bias towards mammals and birds, and a need to address these challenges in authorship and bias. The low number of publications on many Critically Endangered land vertebrates reflects a lack of research effort, mostly because of limited funds and unequal conservation attention.

Determining whether cryptic remnant animal populations survive within specific landscapes is a conservation challenge and may require multiple types of information. Hainan Island, China, has lost most of its large mammal fauna, with no recent evidence for persistence of large carnivores. We conducted a survey of local ecological knowledge in communities around seven protected areas in 2015, collecting sighting reports of the Asiatic black bear Ursus thibetanus. Respondents living near Wuzhishan National Nature Reserve reported the highest number of dated sightings as well as the most recent sightings. In follow-up interviews, wildlife rangers at Wuzhishan reported recent signs of bears and local hunting, and a possible bear photograph was taken inside the Reserve in 2017. Characteristic bear signs, including fresh diagnostic claw marks on trees, were detected at Wuzhishan in 2021, confirming bear presence. Wuzhishan is the last area in Hainan where large herbivores and carnivores survive, and where local conservation efforts still have the potential to maintain functional forest ecosystems that support megafaunal assemblages.

Historically, conservation has focused on species, ecological communities, systems and processes, rather than on individual animals. Even among advocates for compassionate conservation, the focus on animal welfare or animal rights only relates to conservation activities. However, in recent years the idea of managing ecosystems primarily to improve wild animal welfare has been gaining traction among animal ethicists and animal welfare researchers. Managing ecosystems for animal welfare is generally antithetical to management to support ecological and evolutionary processes, since essential features of those processes, such as predation, privation and competition, are sources of animal suffering. Our aim in this paper is not to defend the proposal that ecosystem management should focus primarily on improving wild animal welfare. It is, rather, to situate this proposal in relation to concerns about wild animal welfare expressed by the public and conservation biologists; to connect it to the rise of subjectivist theories of animal welfare; to introduce the ethical arguments used to support elevating the importance of individual wild animals; to explain the advocacy context; to outline potential implications for conservation; and to review critiques of taking a wild animal welfare focus in ecosystem management.

The Atlantic Forest is one of the most threatened tropical forests in the world. Many species have declined and become isolated because of pervasive forest loss and degradation. Here we assess the current population status of Atlantic Forest tree species from Santa Catarina state in southern Brazil to inform conservation policies and future management and protection. We used a novel methodology to generate automated conservation assessments from forest surveys and herbaria data, based on IUCN criteria A, B, C and D. We assessed more than 500 tree species whose populations are considered threatened. Population size reduction (i.e. IUCN criterion A) was the main indicator of threat, followed by restricted geographical range (criterion B). We observed population reductions of over 50% over three generations in more than 60% of the assessments. We recommend including taxonomically verified herbaria data to improve the accuracy of conservation assessments. The results obtained here can be used to identify important and potential regions for creating protected areas and implementing forest restoration programmes.

The overexploitation of wildlife for bushmeat consumption poses a significant threat to biodiversity in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in Angola, where the problem remains largely unexplored. This study provides the first overview of the regional bushmeat trade in Uíge Province and an analysis of consumption patterns in this socio-economic context. We provide data on the range of species hunted and their respective conservation status, and highlight the sources and structures underlying this regional trade. We conducted qualitative expert interviews with nine bushmeat traders from four communities and a quantitative consumer survey of 204 citizens of Uíge. More than 60% of the respondents consumed bushmeat at least once per week and 23% hunted regularly, indicating that this practice is deeply rooted in society. Of the 16 species sold in the central market in Uíge, five are categorized as threatened or Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List, highlighting the need for control measures. Large parts of the population consider bushmeat consumption to be an integral part of their culture but our results indicate that younger and better educated Angolans are moving away from these traditions and are less likely to practice traditional hunting. These findings suggest that access to comprehensive education and environmentally sustainable livelihoods is key to reducing the unsustainable use of wildlife resources.

The savannah–forest mosaic of the Rupununi region of Guyana is a dispersal corridor between large tracts of intact Guiana Shield forests and a subsistence hunting ground for Indigenous Makushi and Wapichan communities. We conducted a camera-trap survey at 199 sites across four major forested habitat types and used multi-species occupancy modelling to determine regional-scale drivers of mammalian occupancy at both species and community levels, accounting for imperfect detection. We detected 47 savannah- and forest-dwelling mammal species, with the occupancy of medium- and large-bodied terrestrial mammal species (community occupancy) positively related to per cent forest cover and negatively to the presence of gallery forest habitat. The occupancy of 15 of 30 species was positively related to forest cover, suggesting the importance of maintaining forested habitat within the broader mosaic comprising savannahs and intermediate habitats for sustaining maximum mammal diversity. Jaguar Panthera onca occupancy was associated with the presence of livestock, and giant anteater Myrmecophaga tridactyla occupancy was negatively associated with distance to the nearest road, both results of concern in relation to potential human–wildlife conflict. The probability of detecting terrestrial mammal species (community detectability) increased away from villages, as did the detectability of two large-bodied, hunted species, the lowland tapir Tapirus terrestris and collared peccary Pecari tajacu, potentially indicating the negative effects of subsistence and commercial hunting in this savannah mosaic habitat. We use our findings to discuss how management strategies for hunting, fire, timber harvest and agriculture within Indigenous titled lands could help ensure the sustainability of these traditional livelihood activities.

The Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla is categorized as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, but the development of effective conservation strategies is hindered by a lack of data on its distribution range and population dynamics. In addition, standardized survey and analysis methods are required to facilitate the sharing of results and maximize conservation effectiveness. To fill these knowledge and methodological gaps, we investigated the occurrence of pangolin burrows in the subtropical forest ecosystem of Fujian, China. We surveyed a total of 70 transects across five land-cover types within the Fujian Junzifeng National Nature Reserve and detected 87 burrows. The majority of burrows (87%) were located in mixed conifer and broadleaf forests. We used six environmental variables in a generalized linear model to examine the relationship between the occurrence of burrows and environmental factors. The average model results from the best model set showed that the distribution of burrows was significantly influenced by forest type. For effective pangolin conservation, we recommend that local conservation authorities prioritize the protection of mixed conifer and broadleaf forests. Our findings support the local conservation of the Chinese pangolin and the standardization of surveys and conservation efforts across the species’ range.

The walia ibex Capra walie is endemic to the Simien Mountains, Ethiopia, and is a national symbol. The Simien Mountains National Park was established in 1966 to protect the last 200 walia ibexes from extinction. We coordinated a population census across their c. 100 km2 range in 2015 and annually during 2019–2024. We counted 865 walia ibexes of all age and sex classes in 2015; this dropped to 650 in 2019–2021, reducing further to 306 in 2024. We investigated this decline through interviews with representatives from neighbouring communities including park personnel, village elders, farmers, local authority staff and militia. More than 70% of those interviewed attributed the drop in walia ibex numbers to poaching, both for food and medicinal purposes. Instability as a result of the Covid-19 crisis and the 2021–2022 war was seen as the fundamental cause. A species action plan is in preparation to mobilize local community ambassadors and increase protection. A database of individually recognized walia ibexes would increase our understanding of population dynamics and distribution to complement the annual counts. We recommend a change of the species’ IUCN Red List status from Vulnerable to Critically Endangered based on the recent, severe population decline and limited extent of occurrence. This status update would accurately reflect the high extinction risk of the walia and help to mobilize resources for urgent conservation actions.

Phalangerids in Sulawesi occur at the westernmost extent of marsupial distribution in Wallacea and are facing escalating anthropogenic pressures. The ecology of the Vulnerable bear cuscus Ailurops ursinus, one of four endemic phalangerids in Sulawesi, is poorly understood and the extent of its decline unknown. This study aimed to build the first habitat suitability model for the species in South Sulawesi and identify priority areas for its conservation. We used maximum entropy modelling to predict the species’ potential distribution, and overlaid the resulting habitat suitability map with regulatory and mining activity maps. Our model predicted only 7.5% (143,682 ha) of the total study area to be potentially suitable habitat for the bear cuscus, predominantly in scattered forest patches, some of which are in areas affected by active mining or frequent poaching. Land-cover type was the most important predictor of the species’ distribution. Our findings suggest the lack of legal protection for the bear cuscus should be reconsidered, and we recommend the species is reassessed for the IUCN Red List. The forested areas of southern South Sulawesi have decreased by 12.5% since 2000, with over half of this decline occurring since 2015, preventing northwards dispersal and restricting the species to a fraction of the province's protected forests. Immediate intervention is necessary to combat poaching, slow the expansion of mining and increase landscape connectivity, to prevent further reduction of the species’ current and potential habitat.

Effective conservation management of threatened species with transboundary distributions is a challenge, requiring international coordination to ensure that country-specific actions align with regional imperatives. Many international conservation efforts overlook species needing attention and fail to incorporate the field expertise of local researchers in regional-level assessments. Here we focus on the taruka Hippocamelus antisensis, a threatened and little-studied deer of the Central Andes Ecoregion in South America. Since 2016, experts, managers and governmental authorities from all countries encompassing the species’ range have gathered to collate information about its presence and coordinate efforts to conserve it. We constructed taruka distribution models using historical records and more recent sightings reported during the last 50 years. Our findings revealed several critical insights: slope, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) during the dry season, and daily and seasonal temperature variability are primary predictors of taruka distribution, and the largest part of its range is in Peru (54%), followed by Bolivia (30%), Argentina (10%) and Chile (6%). The species’ core distribution is confined to the western and eastern limits of the Central Andes Ecoregion, bordered by the Sechura and Atacama Desert to the west and the Yungas Forest to the east. Protection is limited, with only 12 and 8% of the core and non-core areas, respectively, of the species’ range under formal protection. We recommend safeguarding connectivity of the core distribution by establishing transboundary protected areas, improving taruka coexistence with local communities, strengthening and formalizing international collaboration amongst taruka experts and raising the species’ appeal amongst policymakers and the public. In particular, we hope to encourage international collaboration between Southern Hemisphere specialists. This is important because these researchers have extensive field knowledge that could improve global conservation efforts, especially in regions that lack adequate conservation funding.