Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T17:15:34.371Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

3 - Male Bisexuality

from Part I - Controversies and Unresolved Issues

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 June 2022

By
Jaroslava Varella Valentova ,
Andreone Teles Medrado  and
Marco Antonio Correa Varella
Edited by
Todd K. Shackelford
Todd K. Shackelford
Affiliation:
Oakland University, Michigan
Get access

Summary

Compared to the body of literature on male homosexuality, the continuum of bisexual orientations between the exclusively homosexual and heterosexual poles has been largely overlooked in the scientific and evolutionary literature. Possibly, male bisexuality is not as hard a puzzle to evolutionary thinking because it does not reduce individual direct reproductive success as much as exclusive male homosexuality. Or, bisexual men are expected to fall in between the exclusive poles of sexual orientation, and they thus would not differ from them in the studied characteristics. Moreover, the existence of bisexual men has sometimes been doubted or denied in scientific and lay literature. Despite recent Western biphobia (and homophobia) aimed specifically at men, we show that different forms of male sexuality aimed at both men and women are common among different human populations and non-human species, making it a viable candidate for evolutionary analysis. We first outline the concept and measurements of male bisexuality, its prevalence, and after reviewing the proximate socio-biological factors associated with male bisexuality, we outline evolutionary hypotheses on male bisexuality. We show that several hypotheses originally designed to explain exclusive homosexuality apply also to bisexuality, although most of them deal with the more feminine form of male non-heterosexuals. Finally, we outline the importance of studies on bisexuality for evolutionary psychological science.

Keywords

male bisexualitysexual orientationsexual attractionsame-sex sexualitykin selectionnonheterosexuality
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Evolutionary Perspectives on Sexual Psychology , pp. 52 - 93
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abdo, C. H. N. (2004). Descobrimento sexual do Brasil: Para curiosos e estudiosos. São Paulo: Summus.Google Scholar
Ablaza, C., Kabátek, J., & Perales, F. (2022). Are sibship characteristics predictive of same sex marriage? An examination of fraternal birth order and female fecundity effects in population-level administrative data from the Netherlands. The Journal of Sex Research. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2021.1974330Google Scholar
Apostolou, M. (2020a). Does fraternal birth order predict male homosexuality, bisexuality, and heterosexual orientation with same-sex attraction? Evidence from a Greek-speaking sample from Greece. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49, 575–579.Google Scholar
Apostolou, M. (2020b). The evolution of same-sex attraction, Cham: Springer.Google Scholar
Allen, L. S., & Gorski, R. A. (1992). Sexual orientation and the size of the anterior commissure in the human brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 89, 7199–7202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bailey, J. M. (2020). The minority stress model deserves reconsideration, not just extension. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49, 2265–2268.Google Scholar
Bailey, J. M., Dunne, M. P., & Martin, N. G. (2000). Genetic and environmental influences on sexual orientation and its correlates in an Australian twin sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 524–536.Google Scholar
Bailey, J. M., & Jabbour, J. (2020). Reply to Zietsch and Sidari: Male sexual arousal patterns (and sexual orientation) are partly unidimensional. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(44), 27081–27081.Google Scholar
Bailey, M. J., Vasey, P. L., Diamond, L. M., Breedlove, S. M., Vilain, E., & Epprecht, M. (2016). Sexual orientation, controversy, and science. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 17(2), 45–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bailey, J. M., & Zucker, K. J. (1995). Childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation: A conceptual analysis and quantitative review . Developmental Psychology, 31, 43–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balthazart, J. (2011). Minireview: Hormones and human sexual orientation. Endocrinology, 152(8), 2937–2947.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bao, A. M., & Swaab, D. F. (2011). Sexual differentiation of the human brain: Relation to gender identity, sexual orientation and neuropsychiatric disorders. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 32(2), 214–226.Google Scholar
Bártová, K., Štěrbová, Z., Varella, M. A. C., & Valentova, J. V. (2020). Femininity in men and masculinity in women is positively related to sociosexuality. Personality and Individual Differences, 152, 109575.Google Scholar
Bártová, K., & Valentova, J. 2012. Evolutionary perspective of same-sex sexuality: Homosexuality and homosociality revisited. Anthropologie, 50, 61–70.Google Scholar
Barron, A. B., & Hare, B. (2020). Prosociality and a sociosexual hypothesis for the evolution of same-sex attraction in humans. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2955.Google Scholar
Beaver, K. M., Connolly, E. J., Schwartz, J. A., Boutwell, B. B., Barnes, J. C., & Nedelec, J. L. (2016). Sexual orientation and involvement in nonviolent and violent delinquent behaviors: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45, 1759–1769.Google Scholar
Bell, A. P., & Weinberg, M. S. (1978). Homosexualities. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Berger, D., You, T., Minano, M. R., Grieshop, K., Lind, M. I., Arnqvist, G., & Maklakov, A. A. (2016). Sexually antagonistic selection on genetic variation underlying both male and female same-sex sexual behavior. BMC Evolutionary Biology, 16(1), 88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Black, D., Gates, G., Sanders, S., & Taylor, L. (2000). Demographics of gay and lesbian population in the United States: Evidence from available systematic data source . Demography, 37(2), 139–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blanchard, R. (2018a). Fraternal birth order, family size, and male homosexuality: Meta-analysis of studies spanning 25 years. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47, 1–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blanchard, R. (2018b). Response to commentaries: Meta-analysis of probability samples and other new evidence. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47, 49–57.Google Scholar
Blanchard, R. (2019). Recent findings on fraternal birth order and homosexuality in males. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48(7), 1899–1900.Google Scholar
Blanchard, R., & Klassen, P. (1997). H–Y antigen and homosexuality in men. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 185, 373–378.Google Scholar
Blanchard, R., Zucker, K. J., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Gooren, L. J., & Bailey, J. M. (1996). Birth order and sibling sex ratio in two samples of Dutch gender-dysphoric homosexual males. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 25(5), 495–514.Google Scholar
Berglund, H., Lindström, P., & Savic, I. (2006). Brain response to putative pheromones in lesbian women. Proceedings of The National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America-Physical Sciences, 103, 8269–8274.Google Scholar
Bobrow, D., & Bailey, J. M. (2001). Is male homosexuality maintained via kin selection? Evolution and Human Behavior, 22(5), 361–368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bogaert, A. F., & Hershberger, S. (1999). The relation between sexual orientation and penile size. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 28(3), 213–221.Google Scholar
Bogaert, A. F., Skorska, M. N., Wang, C., Gabrie, J., MacNeil, A. J., Hoffarth, M. R., … & Blanchard, R. (2018). Male homosexuality and maternal immune responsivity to the Y-linked protein NLGN4Y. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(2), 302–306.Google Scholar
Breedlove, S. M. (2017). Prenatal influences on human sexual orientation: Expectations versus data. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46(6), 1583–1592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burkart, J. M., Hrdy, S. B., and Van Schaik, C. P. (2009). Cooperative breeding and human cognitive evolution. Evolutionary Anthropology, 18(5), 175–186.Google Scholar
Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P. (2019). Mate preferences and their behavioral manifestations. Annual Review of Psychology, 70, 77–110.Google Scholar
Caceres, C. (1996). Male bisexuality in Peru and the prevention of AIDS. In Aggleton, P. (Ed.), Bisexualities and AIDS – international perspectives (pp. 136–147). London: Taylor and Francis.Google Scholar
Camperio Ciani, A., Corna, F., & Capiluppi, C. (2004). Evidence for maternally inherited factors favouring male homosexuality and promoting female fecundity . Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 271(1554), 2217–2221.Google Scholar
Camperio Ciani, A., Iemmola, F., & Blecher, S. R. (2009). Genetic factors increase fecundity in female maternal relatives of bisexual men as in homosexuals. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 6, 449–455.Google Scholar
Cardoso, F. L. (2005). Cultural universals and differences in male homosexuality: The case of a Brazilian fishing village. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34(1), 103–109.Google Scholar
Cardoso, F. L. (2009). Recalled sex-typed behavior in childhood and sports preferences in adulthood of heterosexual, bisexual, and homosexual men from Brazil, Turkey, and Thailand. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38, 726–736.Google Scholar
Cardoso, F. L., & Werner, D. (2013). Same-sex behavior of heterosexual men: A cross-cultural comparison. Journal of Bisexuality, 13(3), 310–328.Google Scholar
Carvalho, H. W., Dall’Agnol, S. C., & Lara, D. R. (2017). Trends in sexual orientation in Brazil. Psico, 48(2), 89–98.Google Scholar
Cerny, J. A., & Janssen, E. (2011). Patterns of sexual arousal in homosexual, bisexual, and heterosexual men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40(4), 687–697.Google Scholar
Coome, L. A., Skorska, M. N., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2020). Direct reproduction and sexual orientation and gender diversity in Thailand. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(7), 2449–2460.Google Scholar
Crisanti, P., Omri, B., Hughes, E. J., Meduri, G., Hery, C., Clauser, E., … & Saunier, B. (2001). The expression of thyrotropin receptor in the brain. Endocrinology, 142(2), 812–822.Google Scholar
Dandona, L., Dandona, R., Gutierrez, J. P., Kumar, G. A., McPherson, S., Bertozzi, S. M., & ASCI FPP Study Team. (2005). Sex behaviour of men who have sex with men and risk of HIV in Andhra Pradesh, India. AIDS, 19(6), 611–619.Google Scholar
Dawood, K., Pillard, R. C., Horvath, C., Revelle, W., & Bailey, J. M. (2000). Familial aspects of male homosexuality. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 29, 155–163.Google Scholar
Deputy, N. P., & Boehmer, U. (2010). Determinants of body weight among men of different sexual orientation . Preventive Medicine, 51(2), 129–131.Google Scholar
Diamond, L. M. (2003). What does sexual orientation orient? A biobehavioral model distinguishing romantic love and sexual desire. Psychological Review, 110(1), 173.Google Scholar
Diamond, L. M. (2008). Sexual fluidity: Understanding women’s love and desire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Diamond, L. M. (2016). Sexual fluidity in male and females. Current Sexual Health Reports, 8(4), 249–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diamond, L. M., & Wallen, K. (2011). Sexual minority women’s sexual motivation around the time of ovulation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40, 237–246.Google Scholar
Dodge, B., & Sandfort, T. G. M. (2007). A review of mental health research on bisexual individuals when compared to homosexual and heterosexual individuals. In Firestein, B. A. (Ed.), Becoming visible: Counseling bisexuals across the lifespan (pp. 28–51). New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Ellis, L., & Cole-Harding, S. (2001). The effects of prenatal stress, and of prenatal alcohol and nicotine exposure, on human sexual orientation. Physiology and Behavior, 74(1–2), 213–226.Google Scholar
Ellis, L., Ratnasingam, M., & Wheeler, M. (2012). Gender, sexual orientation, and occupational interests: Evidence of their interrelatedness . Personality and Individual Differences, 53(1), 64–69.Google Scholar
Engqvist, L., & Taborsky, M. (2016). The evolution of genetic and conditional alternative reproductive tactics. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 283(1825), 20152945.Google Scholar
Escoffier, J. (2003). Gay-for-pay: Straight men and the making of gay pornography. Qualitative Sociology, 26(4), 531–555.Google Scholar
Fisher, H. E. (1998). Lust, attraction, and attachment in mammalian reproduction. Human Nature, 9, 23–52.Google Scholar
Fitch, W. T. (2015). Four principles of bio-musicology . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 370(1664), 20140091.Google Scholar
Fleischman, D. S., Fessler, D. M., & Cholakians, A. E. (2015). Testing the affiliation hypothesis of homoerotic motivation in humans: The effects of progesterone and priming. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44(5), 1395–1404.Google Scholar
Franklin, J. D., Bourne, A., & Lyons, A. (2020). Characteristics and functions of subcultural identities in the lives of gay, bisexual, and queer-identifying men in Australia. Psychology and Sexuality. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2020.1856172sCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Furuichi, T., Connor, R., & Hashimoto, C. (2014). Non-conceptive sexual interactions in monkeys, apes and dolphins. In Yamagiwa, J., & Karczmarski, L. (Eds.), Primates and Cetaceans (pp. 385–408). Primatology Monographs. Tokyo: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr., Burch, R. L., Zappieri, M. L., Parvez, R. A., Stockwell, M. L., & Davis, J. A. (2003). The human penis as a semen displacement device. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24(4), 277–289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galupo, M. P., Ramirez, J. L., & Pulice-Farrow, L. (2017). “Regardless of their gender”: Descriptions of sexual identity among bisexual, pansexual, and queer identified individuals. Journal of Bisexuality, 17(1), 108–124.Google Scholar
Ganna, A., Verweij, K. J., Nivard, M. G., Maier, R., Wedow, R., Busch, A. S., … & Zietsch, B. P. (2019). Large-scale GWAS reveals insights into the genetic architecture of same-sex sexual behavior. Science, 365(6456), eaat7693.Google Scholar
Gates, G. J. (2013). LGBT parenting in the United States. Los Angeles, CA: The Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law.Google Scholar
Gates, G. J. (2014). LGB families and relationships: Analyses of the 2013 National Health Interview Survey. Los Angeles, CA: The Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law.Google Scholar
Gates, G. J., Badgett, M. V., Macomber, J. E., & Chambers, K. (2007). Adoption and foster care by gay and lesbian parents in the United States. Los Angeles, CA: The Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law.Google Scholar
Geary, R. S., Tanton, C., Eerens, B, Clifton, S., Prah, P., Wellings, K., … & Mercer, C. H. (2018) Sexual identity, attraction and behaviour in Britain: The implications of using different dimensions of sexual orientation to estimate the size of sexual minority populations and inform public health interventions. PLOS ONE, 13(1), e0189607.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geschwind, N., & Galaburda, A. M. (1987). Cerebral lateralization: Biological mechanisms, associations and pathology . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Gladue, B. A., & Bailey, J. M. (1995). Aggressiveness, competitiveness, and human sexual orientation. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 20(5), 475–485.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gross, M. R. (1996). Alternative reproductive strategies and tactics: diversity within sexes. Trends Ecol. Evol., 11, 92–98, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(96)81050-0Google Scholar
Hamer, D. H., & Copeland, P. (1994). The science of desire: The search for the gay gene and the biology of behavior . New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Hilt, L. M., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2010). Gender, sexual orientation, and vulnerability to depression. In Chrisler, J. C., & McCreary, D. R. (Eds.), Handbook of gender research in psychology: Gender research in social and applied psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 133–151). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Haupert, M. L., Gesselman, A. N., Moors, A. C., Fisher, H. E., & Garcia, J. R. (2017). Prevalence of experiences with consensual nonmonogamous relationships: Findings from two national samples of single Americans. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 43(5), 424–440.Google Scholar
Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33(2–3), 61–83.Google Scholar
Herdt, G. H. (Ed.). (1993). Ritualized homosexuality in Melanesia (No. 2). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Herek, G. M., & Garnets, L. D. (2007). Sexual orientation and mental health. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3, 353–375.Google Scholar
Herek, G. M., & McLemore, K. A. (2013). Sexual prejudice. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 309–333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hershberger, S. L. (1997). A twin registry study of male and female sexual orientation. Journal of Sex Research, 34(2), 212–222.Google Scholar
Hinsch, B. (1990). Passions of the cut sleeve: The male homosexual tradition in China. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Howard, R. M., & Perilloux, C. (2017). Is mating psychology most closely tied to biological sex or preferred partner’s sex? Personality and Individual Differences, 115, 83–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hsieh, N., & Liu, H. (2019). Bisexuality, union status, and gender composition of the couple: Reexamining marital advantage in health. Demography, 56(5), 1791–1825.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jabbour, J., Holmes, L., Sylvia, D., Hsu, K. J., Semon, T. L., Rosenthal, A. M., … & Bailey, M. (2020). Robust evidence for bisexual orientation among men. Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, 117, 18369–18377.Google ScholarPubMed
Janssen, D. F. (2017). Age-stratifying homosexualities in the social sciences. Sexuality and Culture, 21(1), 300–322.Google Scholar
Jeffery, A. J. (2015). Two behavioral hypotheses for the evolution of male homosexuality in humans. In The evolution of sexuality (pp. 207–219). Cham: Springer.Google Scholar
Jewkes, R., Dunkle, K., Nduna, M., Levin, J., Jama, N., Khuzwayo, N., … & Duvvury, N. (2006). Factors associated with HIV sero-positivity in young, rural South African men. International Journal of Epidemiology, 35(6), 1455–1460.Google Scholar
Jiménez, F. R. G., Semenyna, S. W., & Vasey, P. L. (2020). Offspring production among the relatives of Istmo Zapotec men and muxes. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(2), 581–594.Google Scholar
Kenrick, D. T., Keefe, R. C., Bryan, A., Barr, A., & Brown, S. (1995). Age preferences and mate choice among homosexuals and heterosexuals: A case for modular psychological mechanisms. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 69, 1166–1172.Google Scholar
Kinnish, K. K., Strassberg, D. S., & Turner, C. W. (2005). Sex differences in the flexibility of sexual orientation: A multidimensional retrospective assessment. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34(2), 173–183.Google Scholar
Kinsey, A., Pomeroy, W., & Martin, C. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, R. C. (2000) The evolution of human homosexual behavior. Current Anthropology, 41(3), 385–413.Google Scholar
Klein, F. (1993). The bisexual option. West Hollywood, CA: American Institute of Bisexuality.Google Scholar
Kranz, F., & Ishai, A. (2006). Face perception is modulated by sexual preference. Current Biology, 16, 63–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuhle, B. X., & Radtke, S. (2013). Born both ways: The alloparenting hypothesis for sexual fluidity in women. Evolutionary Psychology, 11(2), https://doi.org/10.1177/147470491301100202Google Scholar
Lane, T., Pettifor, A., Pascoe, S., Fiamma, A., & Rees, H. (2006). Heterosexual anal intercourse increases risk of HIV infection among young South African men. AIDS, 20(1), 123–125.Google Scholar
Långström, N., Rahman, Q., Carlström, E., & Lichtenstein, P. (2010). Genetic and environmental effects on same-sex sexual behavior: A population study of twins in Sweden. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39(1), 75–80.Google Scholar
Lerch, B. A., & Servedio, M. R. (2021). Same-sex sexual behaviour and selection for indiscriminate mating. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 5(1), 135–141.Google Scholar
LeVay, S. (1991). A difference in hypothalamic structure between heterosexual and homosexual men. Science, 253, 1034–1037.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, G., & Wong, W. I. (2018). Single-sex schooling: Friendships, dating, and sexual orientation . Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47, 1025–1039.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lilley, M. K., Ham, J. R., & Hill, H. M. (2020). The development of socio-sexual behavior in belugas (Delphinapterus leucas) under human care. Behavioural Processes, 171, 104025.Google Scholar
Lippa, R. A. (2020). Interest, personality, and sexual traits that distinguish heterosexual, bisexual, and homosexual individuals: Are there two dimensions that underlie variations in sexual orientation? Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49, 607–622.Google Scholar
Lorenz, T. K. (2019). Brief report: Sexual wellbeing in heterosexual, mostly heterosexual, and bisexually attracted men and women . International Journal of Sexual Health, 31(3), 339–349.Google Scholar
Luoto, S. (2020). Did prosociality drive the evolution of homosexuality? Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49, 2239–2244.Google Scholar
Luoto, S., Krams, I., & Rantala, M. J. (2019). A life history approach to the female sexual orientation spectrum: Evolution, development, causal mechanisms, and health. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48(5), 1273–1308.Google Scholar
McCarthy, M. M., De Vries, G. J., & Forger, N. G. (2017). Sexual differentiation of the brain: A fresh look at mode, mechanisms, and meaning. In Pfaff, D. W., & Joëls, M. (Eds.), Hormones, brain, and behavior, 3rd ed. (Vol. 5, pp. 3–32). Oxford: Academic Press.Google Scholar
McKnight, J. (1997). Straight science?: Homosexuality, evolution and adaptation . London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674–697.Google Scholar
Miller, E. M. (2000). Homosexuality, birth order, and evolution: Toward an equilibrium reproductive economics of homosexuality. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 29(1), 1–34.Google Scholar
Monk, J. D., Giglio, E., Kamath, A., Lambert, M. R., & McDonalgh, C. E. (2019). An alternative hypothesis for the evolution of same-sex sexual behaviour in animals. Nature Ecology and Evolution, 3, 1622–1631.Google Scholar
Mosher, W. D., Chandra, A., & Jones, J. (2005). Sexual behavior and selected health measures: Men and women 15–44 years of age, United States, 2002. Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics, 362, 1–56.Google Scholar
Muòoz-Laboy, M. A. (2004). Beyond ‘MSM’: Sexual desire among bisexually-active Latino men in New York City. Sexualities, 7(1), 55–80.Google Scholar
Murray, S. (2000). Homosexualities. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Muscarella, F. (2000). The evolution of homoerotic behavior in humans. Journal of Homosexuality, 40, 51–77.Google Scholar
Mustanski, B. S., Chivers, M. L., & Bailey, J. M. (2002). A critical review of recent biological research on human sexual orientation. Annual Review of Sex Research, 13, 89–140.Google Scholar
Naud, M. J., Hanlon, R. T., Hall, K. C., Shaw, P. W., & Havenhand, J. N. (2004). Behavioural and genetic assessment of reproductive success in a spawning aggregation of the Australian giant cuttlefish, Sepia apama. Animal Behaviour, 67(6), 1043–1050.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nedoma, K., & Freund, K. (1961). Somatosexual findings in homosexual males. Ceskoslovenska Psychiatrie, 57, 100–103.Google Scholar
Nesse, R. M. (2019). Good reasons for bad feelings: Insights from the frontier of evolutionary psychiatry. New York: Dutton.Google Scholar
Nila, S., Barthes, J., Crochet, P. A., Suryobroto, B., & Raymond, M. (2018). Kin selection and male homosexual preference in Indonesia. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47(8), 2455–2465.Google Scholar
Oliveira, R. F., Taborsky, M., & Brockmann, H. J. (2008). Alternative reproductive tactics: An integrative approach. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Perrett, D. I., Lee, K. J., Penton-Voak, I., Rowland, D., Yoshikawa, S., Burt, D. M., … & Akamatsu, S. (1998). Effects of sexual dimorphism on facial attractiveness. Nature, 394(6696), 884–887.Google Scholar
Petterson, L. (2015). Male bisexuality in Samoa. Tethbridge, Alberta, Canada: Department of Psychology, University of Lethbridge.Google Scholar
Petterson, L. J., Dixson, B. J., Little, A. C., & Vasey, P. L. (2015). Viewing time measures of sexual orientation in Samoan cisgender men who engage in sexual interactions with fa’afafine. PLOS ONE, 10(2), e0116529.Google Scholar
Petterson, L. J., Dixson, B. J., Little, A. C., & Vasey, P. L. (2016). Reconsidering male bisexuality: Sexual activity role and sexual attraction in Samoan men who engage in sexual interactions with Fa’afafine . Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 3(1), 11.Google Scholar
Rahman, Q. (2005). The neurodevelopment of human sexual orientation. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 29, 1057–1066.Google Scholar
Rahman, Q., Collins, A., Morrison, M., Orrells, J. C., Cadinouche, K., Greenfield, S., & Begum, S. (2008). Maternal inheritance and familial fecundity factors in male homosexuality. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 37(6), 962–969.Google Scholar
Rahman, Q., & Hull, M. S. (2005). An empirical test of the kin selection hypothesis for male homosexuality. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34(4), 461–467.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rahman, Q., & Wilson, G. D. (2003). Born gay? The psychobiology of human sexual orientation. Personality and Individual Differences, 34(8), 1337–1382.Google Scholar
Rahman, Q., Wilson, G. D., & Abrahams, S. (2003). Sexual orientation related differences in spatial memory. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 9(3), 376–383.Google Scholar
Rieger, G., Chivers, M. L., & Bailey, J. M. (2005). Sexual arousal patterns of bisexual men. Psychological Science, 16(8), 579–584.Google Scholar
Rieger, G., Holmes, L., Watts-Overall, T. M., Gruia, D. C., Bailey, J. M., & Savin-Williams, R. C. (2020). Gender nonconformity of bisexual men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(7), 2481–2495.Google Scholar
Rieger, G., Linsenmeier, J. A., Gygax, L., & Bailey, J. M. (2008). Sexual orientation and childhood gender nonconformity: Evidence from home videos. Developmental Psychology, 44(1), 46.Google Scholar
Rieger, G., & Savin-Williams, R. C. (2012). The eyes have it: Sex and sexual orientation differences in pupil dilation patterns. PLOS ONE, 7(8), e40256.Google Scholar
Roberts, B. W., Walton, K. E., & Viechtbauer, W. (2006). Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 132(1), 1.Google Scholar
Roselli, C. E., Reddy, R. C., & Kaufman, K. R. (2011). The development of male-oriented behavior in rams. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 32(2), 164–169.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, A. M., Sylva, D., & Bailey, J. M. (2012). The male bisexuality debate revisited: some bisexual men have bisexual arousal patterns. Archive of Sexual Behavior, 41, 135–147.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, A. M., Sylva, D., Safron, A., & Bailey, J. M. (2011). Sexual arousal patterns of bisexual men revisited. Biological Psychology, 88(1), 112–115.Google Scholar
Ross, M. W., Daneback, K., & Mansson, S. (2012). Fluid versus fixed: A new perspective on bisexuality as a fluid sexual orientation beyond gender. Journal of Bisexuality, 12, 449–460.Google Scholar
Ross, M. W., & Wells, A. L. (2000). The modernist fallacy in homosexual selection theories: Homosexual and homosocial exaptation in South Asian society. Psychology, Evolution and Gender, 2(3), 253–262.Google Scholar
Rudolph, C. E., Lundin, A., Åhs, J. W., Dalman, C., & Kosidou, K. (2018). Brief report: Sexual orientation in individuals with autistic traits: Population based study of 47,000 adults in Stockholm County. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(2), 619–624.Google Scholar
Russell, E. M., Babcock, M. J., Lewis, D. M., Ta, V. P., & Ickes, W. (2018a). Why attractive women want gay male friends: A previously undiscovered strategy to prevent mating deception and sexual exploitation . Personality and Individual Differences, 120, 283–287.Google Scholar
Russell, E. M., DelPriore, D. J., Butterfield, M. E., & Hill, S. E. (2013). Friends with benefits, but without the sex: Straight women and gay men exchange trustworthy mating advice . Evolutionary Psychology, 11(1), https://doi.org/10.1177/147470491301100113Google Scholar
Russell, E. M., Ickes, W., & Ta, V. P. (2018b). Women interact more comfortably and intimately with gay men – but not straight men – after learning their sexual orientation. Psychological Science, 29(2), 288–303.Google Scholar
Sanders, A. R., Beecham, G. W., Guo, S., Dawood, K., Rieger, G., Badner, J. A., … & Martin, E. R. (2017). Genome-wide association study of male sexual orientation . Scientific Reports, 7(1), 1–6.Google Scholar
Sanders, A. R., Martin, E. R., Beecham, G. W., Guo, S., Dawood, K., Rieger, G., … & Duan, J. (2015). Genome-wide scan demonstrates significant linkage for male sexual orientation. Psychological Medicine, 45, 1379–1388.Google Scholar
Santtila, P., Sandnnaba, N. K., Harlaar, N., Varjonen, M., Alanko, K., & Von Der Pahlen, B. (2008). Potential for homosexual response is prevalent and genetic. Biological Psychology, 77, 102–105.Google Scholar
Savic, I., Berglund, H., & Lindström, P. (2005). Brain response to putative pheromones in homosexual men. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102, 7356–7361.Google Scholar
Savin-Williams, R. C. (2018). An exploratory study of exclusively heterosexual, primarily heterosexual, and mostly heterosexual young men. Sexualities, 21(1–2), 16–29.Google Scholar
Savin-Williams, R. C., Cash, B. M., McCormack, M., & Rieger, G. (2017). Gay, mostly gay, or bisexual leaning gay? An exploratory study distinguishing gay sexual orientations among young men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46, 265–272.Google Scholar
Savin-Williams, R. C., Joyner, K., & Rieger, G. (2012). Prevalence and stability of self-reported sexual orientation identity during young adulthood. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41(1), 103–110.Google Scholar
Savin-Williams, R. C., & Ream, G. L. (2007). Prevalence and stability of sexual orientation components during adolescence and young adulthood. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36(3), 385–394.Google Scholar
Savin-Williams, R. C., & Vrangalova, Z. (2013). Mostly heterosexuals as a distinct sexual orientation group: A systematic review of the empirical evidence. Developmental Review, 33(1), 58–88.Google Scholar
Schmitt, D. P. (2007). Sexual strategies across sexual orientations: How personality traits and culture relate to sociosexuality among gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and heterosexuals. Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 18(2–3), 183–214.Google Scholar
Sell, R. L. (2007). Defining and measuring sexual orientation for research. In The health of sexual minorities (pp. 355–374). Boston, MA: Springer.Google Scholar
Sell, R. L., Wells, J. A., & Wypij, D. (1995). The prevalence of homosexual behavior and attraction in the United States, the United Kingdom and France: Results of national population-based samples. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 24(3), 235–248.Google Scholar
Semenyna, S. W., Gómez Jiménez, F. R., VanderLaan, D. P., & Vasey, P. L. (2020). Inter-sexual mate competition in three cultures. PLOS ONE, 15(7), e0236549.Google Scholar
Smith, A. M., Rissel, C. E., Richters, J., Grulich, A. E., & de Visser, R. O. (2003). Sex in Australia: Sexual identity, sexual attraction and sexual experience among a representative sample of adults. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 27(2), 138–145.Google Scholar
Smith, A. D., Tapsoba, P., Peshu, N., Sanders, E. J., & Jaffe, H. W. (2009). Men who have sex with men and HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa. The Lancet, 374(9687), 416–422.Google Scholar
Smith, M. K., Wei, C., Liu, C., Pan, S. W., Ong, J. J., & Tucker, J. D. (2020). Gender identity and sexual orientation in Chinese men who have sex with men: A latent class analysis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49, 721–731.Google Scholar
Snowden, R. J., Fitton, E., McKinnon, A., & Gray, N. S. (2020). Sexual attraction to both genders in ambiphilic men: Evidence from implicit cognitions. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49, 503–515.Google Scholar
Sommer, V., & Vasey, P. L. (Eds.). (2006). Homosexual behaviour in animals: An evolutionary perspective . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Stief, M. C., Rieger, G., & Savin-Williams, R. C. (2014). Bisexuality is associated with elevated sexual sensation seeking, sexual curiosity, and sexual excitability. Personality and Individual Differences, 66, 193–198.Google Scholar
Storms, M. D. (1980). Theories of sexual orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38(5), 783–792.Google Scholar
Swaab, D. F. (2009). Sexual orientation and its basis in brain structure and function. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105(30), 10273–10274.Google Scholar
Swaab, D. F., & Hofman, M. A. (1990). An enlarged suprachiasmatic nucleus in homosexual men. Brain Research, 537, 141–148.Google Scholar
Swift-Gallant, A., Coome, L. A., Aitken, M., Monks, D. A., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2019). Evidence for distinct biodevelopmental influences on male sexual orientation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(26), 12787–12792.Google Scholar
Tinbergen, N. (1963). On aims and methods of ethology. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 20(4), 410–433.Google Scholar
Ulrich, L. (2011). Bisexual invisibility: Impacts and recommendations. San Francisco, CA: San Francisco Human Rights Commission . Google Scholar
Utami Atmoko, S. S., Mitra Setia, T., Goossens, B., James, S. S., Knott, C. D., Morrogh-Bernard, H. C., & van Noordwijk, M. A. (2009a). Orangutan mating behavior and strategies. In Wich, S. A., Utami Atmoko, S. S., Mitra Setia, T., & van Schaik, C. P. (Eds.), Orangutans: Geographic variation in behavioral ecology and conservation (pp. 235–244). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Valentova, J. V., Amaral, B. H., & Varella, M. A. (in press). Initiation of non-heterosexual relationships. The Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology and Romantic Relationship. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Valentova, J. V., de Moraes, A. C., & Varella, M. A. C. (2020). Gender, sexual orientation and type of relationship influence individual differences in jealousy: A large Brazilian sample . Personality and Individual Differences, 157, 109805.Google Scholar
Valentova, J. V., Junior, F. P. M., Štěrbová, Z., Varella, M. A. C., & Fisher, M. L. (2020). The association between Dark Triad traits and sociosexuality with mating and parenting efforts: A cross-cultural study. Personality and Individual Differences, 154, 109613.Google Scholar
Valentova, J. V., & Varella, M. A. C. (2016). Sexual orientation and human sexuality. In Shackelford, T. K., & Weekes‐Shackelford, V. A. (Eds.), Encyclopaedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science, Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_3622-1Google Scholar
Valentova, J. V., Varella, M. A. C., & Fernandez, A. M. (2020, under review). Jealousy is influenced by sex and sexual orientation of the individual, and sex of the rival: Evidence from Brazil, Chile and Portugal. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/hypkzGoogle Scholar
van Anders, S. (2012). From one bioscientist to another: Guidelines for researching and writing about bisexuality for the lab and biosciences. Journal of Bisexuality, 12(3), 393–403.Google Scholar
VanderLaan, D. P., Ren, Z., & Vasey, P. L. (2013). Male androphilia in the ancestral environment. Human Nature, 24(4), 375–401.Google Scholar
VanderLaan, D. P., & Vasey, P. L. (2012). Relationship status and elevated avuncularity in Samoan fa’afafine. Personal Relationships, 19, 326–339.Google Scholar
Vasey, P. L., Parker, J. L., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2014). Comparative reproductive output of androphilic and gynephilic males in Samoa. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43, 363–367.Google Scholar
Vasey, P. L., Pocock, D. S., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2007). Kin selection and male androphilia in Samoan fa’afafine. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28, 159–167.Google Scholar
Vasey, P. L., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2012). Sexual orientation in men and avuncularity in Japan: Implications for the kin selection hypothesis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41(1), 209–215.Google Scholar
Vrangalova, Z., & Savin-Williams, R. C. (2012). Mostly heterosexual and mostly gay/lesbian: Evidence for new sexual orientation identities. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41(1), 85–101.Google Scholar
Vrangalova, Z., & Savin-Williams, R. C. (2014). Psychological and physical health of mostly heterosexuals: A systematic review. The Journal of Sex Research, 51(4), 410–445.Google Scholar
Wampold, C. H. (2018). The association between fraternal birth order and anal-erotic roles of men who have sex with men . Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47, 2445–2454.Google Scholar
Ward, B. W., Dahlhamer, J. M., Galinsky, A. M., & Joestl, S. S. (2014). Sexual orientation and health among US adults: National Health Interview Survey, 2013. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Health Statistics.Google Scholar
Weinrich, J. D., Klein, F., McCutchan, J. A., Grant, I., & HNRC Group. (2014). Cluster analysis of the Klein Sexual Orientation Grid in clinical and nonclinical samples: When bisexuality is not bisexuality. Journal of Bisexuality, 14(3–4), 349–372.Google Scholar
Wells, J. E., McGee, M. A., & Beautrais, A. L. (2011). Multiple aspects of sexual orientation: Prevalence and sociodemographic correlates in a New Zealand national survey . Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40(1), 155–168.Google Scholar
Werner, D. (2006). The evolution of male homosexuality and its implications for human psychological and cultural variations. In Sommer, V. and Vasey, P. L. (Eds.), Homosexual behaviour in animals (pp. 316–346). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Whitam, F. L. (1983). Culturally invariable properties of male homosexuality: Tentative conclusions from cross-cultural research. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 12(3), 207–226.Google Scholar
Wilson, D. S. (1994). Adaptive genetic variation and human evolutionary psychology. Ethology and Sociobiology, 15, 219–235.Google Scholar
Witelson, S. F., Kigar, D. L., Scamvougeras, A., Kideckel, D. M., Buck, B., Stanchev, P. L., … & Black, S. (2008). Corpus callosum anatomy in right-handed homosexual and heterosexual men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 37, 857–863.Google Scholar
Wrangham, R. W. (1993). The evolution of sexuality in chimpanzees and bonobos. Human Nature, 4(1), 47–79.Google Scholar
Wrangham, R. (2019). The goodness paradox: How evolution made us more and less violent. London: Profile Books.Google Scholar
Xu, Y., & Zheng, Y. (2015). Fraternal birth order, handedness, and sexual orientation in a Chinese population. The Journal of Sex Research, 54(1), 10–18.Google Scholar
Zietsch, B. P., Morley, K. I., Shekar, S. N., Verweij, K. J., Keller, M. C., Macgregor, S., … & Martin, N. G. (2008). Genetic factors predisposing to homosexuality may increase mating success in heterosexuals. Evolution and Human Behavior, 29(6), 424–433.Google Scholar
Zietsch, B. P., & Sidari, M. J. (2020). The Kinsey scale is ill-suited to most sexuality research because it does not measure a single construct . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(44), 27080–27080.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×