Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T16:21:19.745Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

13 - Training for Cross-Cultural Competence in the United States Military

from Part II - Practice of Intercultural Training

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2020

By
Sharon Glazer
Edited by
Dan Landis  and
Dharm P. S. Bhawuk
Dan Landis
Affiliation:
University of Hawaii, Hilo
Dharm P. S. Bhawuk
Affiliation:
University of Hawaii, Manoa
Get access

Summary

The present chapter presents a recent historical description of the implementation of cross-cultural competence (3C) training programs throughout the United States (US) military. Training for 3C in the military aims at increasing foreign cultural understanding and providing behavioral strategies necessary to improve interactions in a foreign operational environment or with people of different national backgrounds. The importance of 3C was highlighted through a DoD Strategic Plan and an active body of basic and applied research throughout the DoD from 2007 to 2014. However, by 2018, its strategic value waned, except for a few activities within the Marines and US Air Force. Some of the challenges 3C training programs experienced were: (1) limited funding to conduct training evaluations, (2) balancing a need for culture-specific training for immediate deployment vs. culture-general training for having a military force at the ready for "any-time" deployment, and (3) inconsistent language to operationalize “culture” across the forces. After a review of US military 3C training programs from mid 2000s, this chapter concludes with propositions for stimulating a demand signal and furthering valid evaluation research on the effectiveness of 3C training.

Keywords

Cross-Cultural Competence3Cmilitarytraininginterculturalregional expertiseAir ForceArmyMarinesNavy
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Intercultural Training , pp. 440 - 474
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

86th Airlift Wing Public Affairs (2018, April 12). An opportunity for multilingual Airmen. Retrieved July 9, 2018. www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/1491589/an-opportunity-for-multilingual-airmen/Google Scholar
361 Interactive (n.d.). Retrieved August 17, 2011, from www.361interactive.com/Google Scholar
Abbe, A., Gulick, L. M. V., & Herman, J. L. (2007). Cross-cultural competence in Army leaders: A conceptual and empirical foundation (ARI Study Report 2008–01). Arlington, VA: US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.Google Scholar
Aytug, Z. G., Rua, T., Brazeal, D. V., Almaraz, J. A., & González, C. B. (2018). A socio-cultural approach to multicultural experience: Why interactions matter for creative thinking but exposures don’t. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 64, 29–42.Google Scholar
Bennett, J. M., & Bennett, M. J. (2004). Developing intercultural sensitivity: An integrative approach to global and domestic diversity. In Landis, D., Bennett, J., & Bennett, M. (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training (3rd ed., pp. 147–165). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bhawuk, D. P. (1998). The role of culture theory in cross cultural training: A multi method study of culture specific, culture general, and culture theory-based assimilators. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 29, 630–655.Google Scholar
Blascovich, J. J., & Hartel, C. R. (2008). Intercultural competence. In Blascovich, J. J. & Hartel, C. R. (Eds.), Human behavior in military contexts (pp. 20–28). Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved November 8, 2011, from www.nap.edu/catalog/12023.htmlGoogle Scholar
Briscoe, J., & Hall, D. (1999). Grooming and picking leaders using competency frameworks: Do they work? An alternative approach and new guidelines for practice. Organizational Dynamics, 28, 37–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brislin, R. W. (1986). A culture general assimilator: Preparation for various types of sojourners. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10, 215–234.Google Scholar
Brislin, R. W. (1970, Nov.). The content and evaluation of cross-cultural training programs. Arlington, VA: Institute for Defense Analyses Science and Technology Division. Paper P-671.Google Scholar
Brugman, C., Reinhart, G., Feinberg, E., Glazer, S., Falk, M., & Castle, S. (2010, Sept.). Cross-cultural and diversity training: A literature review and application to US military operational readiness. College Park, MD: University of Maryland Center for Advanced Study of Language.Google Scholar
Center for Information Warfare Training Public Affairs (2017, Feb.). New CLREC app offers culture, language tips. Retrieved, July 9, 2018, from www.militaryspot.com/news/new-clrec-app-offers-culture-language-tipsGoogle Scholar
Chief of Naval Operations (2008, Jan.). US Naval Language Skills, Regional Expertise and Cultural Awareness Strategy. Retrieved November 9, 2011 from, www.navy.mil/maritime/Signed_Navy_LREC%20Strategy.pdfGoogle Scholar
Major.Connable, B. (2018). Human Terrain Systems is dead, long live … what? Building and sustaining military cultural competence in the aftermath of the Human Terrain System. Military Review, Jan.–Feb., 25–33. Retrieved July 9, 2018 from www.armyupress.army.mil/Journals/Military-Review/English-Edition-Archives/January-February-2018/Human-Terrain-System-is-Dead-Long-Live-What/Google Scholar
Cushner, K. (1989). Assessing the impact of a culture-general assimilator. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 13, 125–146.Google Scholar
Dansby, M. R., & Landis, D. (1996). Intercultural training in the United States military. In Landis, D. & Bhagat, R. S. (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training (2nd ed., pp. 203–215). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Day, H. R. (1983). Race relations training in the US military. In Landis, D. & Brislin, R. W., (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training (Volume 2): Issues in training methodology (pp. 241–289). New York, NY: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Defense Foreign Language Steering Committee (2005, Jan.). Defense language transformation roadmap. Retrieved May 2011 from www.defense.gov/news/Mar2005/d20050330roadmap.pdfGoogle Scholar
Department of Defense (2007a, Oct.). DoD regional and cultural capabilities: The way ahead (OMB No. 0704-0188). Retrieved May 2011 from http://dodreports.com/pdf/ada488851.pdfGoogle Scholar
Department of Defense (2007b, June). DoD Instruction Number 5160.70 Subject: Management of DoD Language and Regional Proficiency Capabilities. Retrieved from www.dtic.mil/whs/directives/corres/pdf/516070p.pdfGoogle Scholar
Department of Defense (2011, Feb.). Strategic plan for language skills, regional expertise, and cultural capabilities: 2011–2016. Retrieved October 18, 2011, from http://prhome.defense.gov/READINESS/DLO/files/STRAT%20PLAN.pdfGoogle Scholar
Dinges, N. (1983). Intercultural competence. In Landis, D. & Brislin, R. W. (Eds.). Handbook of intercultural training, Volume 1: Issues in theory and design (pp. 176–202). New York, NY: Pergamon Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fallon, S. J. (2014, Feb. 23). Some recent approaches to cultural intelligence gathering. Small Wars Journal. Retrieved January 5, 2015, from http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/some-recent-approaches-to-cultural-intelligence-gatheringGoogle Scholar
Fiedler, F. E., Mitchell, T., & Triandis, H. C. (1971). The culture assimilator: An approach to cross-cultural training. Journal of Applied Psychology, 55(2), 95–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51, 327–358.Google Scholar
Fosher, K., Mackenzie, L., Tarzi, E., Post, K., & Gauldin, E. (2017). Culture general guidebook for the military professional. Quantico, VA: Center for Advanced Operational Culture Learning. www.usmcu.edu/culture-general-guidebook.Google Scholar
Fowler, S. A., & Blohm, J. M. (2004). An analysis of methods for intercultural training. In Landis, D., Bennett, J. M., & Bennett, M. J. (Eds.). Handbook of intercultural training (pp. 37–84). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.Google Scholar
Friedland, L., Shaeff, G. W., & Turnley, J. G. (2007). Socio-cultural perspectives: A new intelligence paradigm. Report on the conference at The MITRE Corporation, McLean, Virginia, September 12, 2006 (MITRE Technical Report MTR70244). Retrieved July 5, 2011, from www.mitre.org/work/tech_papers/tech_papers_08/07_1220 /07_1220.pdfGoogle Scholar
Gabrenya, W. K. Jr. (2018). Cross-cultural competence to cultural intelligence: Measuring that certain global something. Part 三 [3]: What have we done to deserve the Cultural Intelligence Scale? In D. Thomas (Chair), Cross-cultural competence to cultural intelligence: Measuring that certain global something. Symposium presented at the 24th International Congress of the International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology, Guelph, Canada.Google Scholar
Gabrenya, W. K. Jr., Griffith, R. L., Moukarzel, R. G., Pomerance, M. H., & Reid, P. (2013). Theoretical and practical advances in the assessment of cross-cultural competence. In Schmorrow, D. D. & Nicholson, D. M. (Eds.), Advances in design for cross-cultural activities. Part I (pp. 317–331). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Gallus, J. A., Gouge, M., Antolic, E., Fosher, K., Jasparro, V., Coleman, S. … Klafehn, J. L. (2014). Cross-cultural competence in the Department of Defense: An annotated bibliography. (Special Report 71). Fort Belvoir, VA: US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. Retrieved July 8, 2018, from www.dtic.mil/get-tr-doc/pdf?AD=ADA599260.Google Scholar
Gelfand, M. (2008). Culture and negotiations. In Blascovich, J. J. & Hartel, C. R. (Eds.), Human behavior in military contexts (pp. 85–105). Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved November 8, 2011, from www.nap.edu/catalog/12023.html.Google Scholar
Glazer, S., Hamedani, N., Kayton, K., Maloney, S., & Weinberg, A. (2011, November). Regional expertise and culture throughout the Department of Defense: The Department of Defense research landscape. College Park, MD: University of Maryland Center for Advanced Study of Language.Google Scholar
Glazer, S., Hamedani, N., Kayton, K., & Weinberg, A. (2014). Culture research landscape throughout the United States Department of Defense. In Jackson, L. T. B., Meiring, D., Van de Vijver, F. J. R., Idemoudia, E. S., & Gabrenya, W. K. Jr. (Eds.), Toward sustainable development through nurturing diversity: Selected papers from the Twenty-First International Congress of the International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology. Melbourne, FL: International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology. Retrieved July 12, 2014, from www.iaccp.org/sites/default/files/stellenbosch_pdf/Glazer.pdfGoogle Scholar
Glazer, S., Saner, L., Paletz, S., Pavisic, I., & Mathis, A. (2014, July). Attitudes and performance implications of cross-cultural training. In W. Gabrenya & C. Ward (co-Chairs). Expats, repats, students and the rest: Studies along the lifecycle of generation globalization. Symposium presented at the 22nd International Congress of the International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology, Reims, France.Google Scholar
Glazer, S., Saner, L., Pavisic, I., & Barnes, M. (2014). Cross-cultural training and education for detection. In Egeth, J. D., Schmorrow, D., & Klein, G. L. (Eds.), Sociocultural behavior sensemaking: State-of-the-art in understanding the operational environment. McLean, VA: MITRE.Google Scholar
Greene Sands, R. R. (2016). Assessing special operations forces language, region, and culture needs: Leveraging digital and LRC learning to reroute the “roadmap” from human terrain to human domain. Joint Special Operations University Report 16–8. MacDill Airforce Base, FL: The JSOU Press. Retrieved July 9, 2018, from www.hsdl.org/?view&did=794565Google Scholar
Hajjar, R. (2006). The Army’s new TRADOC culture center. Military Review, Nov.–Dec., 89–92.Google Scholar
Hardison, C. H., Sims, C. S., Ali, F., Villamizar, A., Mundell, B. F., & Howe, P. (2009). Cross-cultural skills for deployed Air Force personnel: Defining cross-cultural performance. (Air Force Research Number: MG-811-AF). Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. As of November 2, 2011: www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG811.Google Scholar
Headquarters, Department of the Army (2008, October 6). Stability Operations (Publication Field Manual No. 3-07). Valid as of November 9, 2011: www.fas.org/irp/doddir/army/fm3-07.pdfGoogle Scholar
Headquarters, Department of the Army (2009, December). Army Culture and Foreign Language Strategy. Valid as of March 23, 2011: https://atn.army.mil/dsp_template.aspx?dpID=2Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Howcroft, J. (2013, June 25). Things Americans need to know: How to be better partners. Small Wars Journal. Retrieved January 5, 2015, from http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/things-americans-need-to-know-how-to-be-better-partnersGoogle Scholar
Howcroft, J. (2014, May 3). Things that partners need to know about working with Americans. Small Wars Journal. Retrieved January 4, 2015, from http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/things-that-partners-need-to-know-about-working-with-americansGoogle Scholar
Jex, S. M., & Bliese, P. D. (1999). Efficacy beliefs as a moderator of the impact of work-related stressors: A multilevel study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 349–361.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirkpatrick, R. (1975). Evaluating training programs. Madison, WI: American Society for Training and Development.Google Scholar
Kobus, D. A., & Viklund, E. P. (2013). Assessing changes in decision making as a result of training. In Schmorrow, D. D. & Nicholson, D. M. (Eds.), Advances in design for cross-cultural activities. Part I (pp. 77–85). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Kruse, J. E., McKenna, S., Bleicher, N. B., Hawley, T. E., Hyde, A., Rogers, S., & Fenner, L. M. (2008, Nov.). Building language skills and cultural competencies in the military: DOD’s challenge in today’s educational environment. Report for the US House of Representatives Committee on Armed Services, Subcommittee on Oversight & Investigations. Retrieved May 2011, from http://prhome.defense.gov/READINESS/ DLO/files/LanguageCultureReportNov08_HASC.pdfGoogle Scholar
Kwantes, C. T., & Glazer, S. (2017). Culture, organizations, and work: Clarifying concepts. In Glazer, S. & Kwantes, C. T. (Series Eds.), SpringerBriefs in culture, organizations, & work. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.Google Scholar
Lacefield, M., Tarr, R., & Malone, N. (2013). Instructional strategies for cross-cultural perceptual skills in military training. In Schmorrow, D. D. & Nicholson, D. M. (Eds.), Advances in design for cross-cultural activities. Part I (pp. 23–34). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Leung, A. K.-y., Lee, S., & Chiu, C.-y. (2013). Meta-knowledge of culture promotes cultural competence. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44, 992–1006.Google Scholar
Leung, K., & Bond, M. H. (2004). Social axioms: A model for social beliefs in multicultural perspective. In Zanna, M. P. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 36, pp. 119–197). San Diego, CA: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Littrell, L. N., & Salas, E. (2005). A review of cross-cultural training: Best practices, guidelines, and research needs Human Resource Development Review, 4, 3–5, 334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackenzie, L., Gauldin, E., & Tarzi, E. (2018). 2018 military cross-cultural competence: An annotated bibliography. Center for Advanced Operational Learning, Quantico, VA. Retrieved May 9, 2019, from https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/1059390.pdfGoogle Scholar
MacMillan, J., Freeman, J., Zacharias, G. L., Bullock, B., & Pfautz, J. (2010, August). Strategic roadmap for human social, cultural, and behavioral science and technology. Washington, DC: Aptima.Google Scholar
MacMillan, J., Walker, A., Clarke, E., & Marc, Y. (2013). Cultural awareness training or Marine Corps Operations: The CAMO [Cultural Awareness for Marine Operations] Project. In Schmorrow, D. D. & Nicholson, D. M. (Eds.), Advances in design for cross-cultural activities. Part I (pp. 277–286). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Maloney, S., & Bloomfield, A. (2012, Aug.). Regional Proficiency Assessment Tool: Providing the capacity to characterize the RP of military personnel. (CASL Fact Research Fact Sheet). College Park, MD: Center for Advanced Study of Language. Contract No. TTO 81235. Retrieved January 6, 2015, from www.casl.umd.edu/sites/default/files/FS_81235_2012-08_FINAL.pdfGoogle Scholar
Marine Corps Vision and Strategy 2025 (2008). Retrieved May 2011, from www.marines.mil/news/publications/Documents/Vision%20Strat%20lo%20res.pdfGoogle Scholar
Mason, M. C. (2017). Strategic insights: Lost in translation. Strategic Studies Institute. Retrieved July 8, 2018, from https://ssi.armywarcollege.edu/index.cfm/articles/Lost-In-Translation/2017/08/17Google Scholar
Matsumoto, D., LeRoux, J., & Schaab, B. (in review). Evaluation of GlobeSmart Commander (GSC). Arlington, VA: US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.Google Scholar
McCloskey, M. J., Behymer, K. J., Papautsky, E. L., Ross, K. G., & Abbe, A. (2010). A developmental model of cross-cultural competence at the tactical level. (Technical Report No. 1278). Alexandria, VA: US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.Google Scholar
McFate, M. (2005) Anthropology and counterinsurgency: The strange story of their curious relationship. Military Review, March–April, 24–38.Google Scholar
Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. (1985). The dimensions of expatriate acculturation: A review. Academy of Management, 10, 39–47.Google Scholar
Mendenhall, M. E., Osland, J., Bird, A., Oddou, G., & Maznevski, M. (2008). Global leadership: Research, practice, and development. London, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Military Intelligence (2014, Jan.–Mar.). TRADOC Culture Center. Retrieved December 28, 2014, from www.fas.org/irp/agency/army/mipb/2014_01.pdfGoogle Scholar
Miyoshi Jager, S. (2007, Nov.). On the uses of cultural knowledge. Valid as of November 9, 2011: www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/PUB817.pdfGoogle Scholar
Morris, M. W., Savani, K., Mor, S., & Cho, J. (2014). When in Rome: Intercultural learning and implications for training. Research in Organizational Behavior, 34, 189–215.Google Scholar
Myers, M. (2018, June 5). Good news, soldiers: The Army has slashed even more mandatory training requirements. Army Times. Retrieved July 10, 2018, from www.armytimes.com/news/your-army/2018/06/05/good-news-soldiers-the-army-has-slashed-even-more-mandatory-training-requirements/Google Scholar
Naval Aviation Enterprise (2006). Science and technology strategic plan. Retrieved from Office of Naval Research, Valid as of November 9, 2011, from www.navair.navy.mil/osbp /atc/presentation/NAE_S&T_Plan_final_wdistro.pdfGoogle Scholar
Office of Naval Research (2011). Broad Agency Announcement: Human Social Cultural and Behavioral Sciences (HSCB) Applied Research and Advanced Technology Development. ONR BAA Announcement #ONRBAA11–014Google Scholar
Office of Naval Research (2014). Broad Agency Announcement: Minerva Research Initiative. ONR BAA Announcement #14-013. Retrieved January 5, 2015, from www.onr.navy.mil/~/media/Files/Funding-Announcements/BAA/2014/14-013-FINAL.ashxGoogle Scholar
Office of the Secretary of Defense (2018). Minerva Research Initiative. WHS-AD-FOA-18. Retrieved July 9, 2018, from www.grants.gov/web/grants/view-opportunity.html?oppId=305546Google Scholar
Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence (2017, Feb. 14). Defense intelligence foreign language and regional and culture capabilities. DoD Instruction 3300.07. Retrieved July 9, 2018, from www.hsdl.org/?view&did=798958Google Scholar
Paletz, S. B. F., Hughes, M. M., & Brugman, C. (2014). RPAT face validity report. College Park, MD: University of Maryland Center for Advanced Study of Language.Google Scholar
Paletz, S. B. F., Hughes, M. M., Sumer, A., Brugman, C. M., & Bunting, M. (2018). A preliminary validation of the Regional Proficiency Assessment Tool (RPAT). Military Psychology, 30, 528–546.Google Scholar
Pomerleau, M. (2018, Dec. 27). How DIA can recreate the stress of learning in a foreign country. Retrieved May 9, 2019, from www.c4isrnet.com/it-networks/2018/12/27/how-dia-can-recreate-the-stress-of-learning-in-a-foreign-country/Google Scholar
Pool, R. (2011). Socio-cultural data to accomplish department of defense missions: Toward a unified social framework. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.Google Scholar
Rasmussen, L. J., & Sieck, W. R. (2013). Metacognitive underpinnings of 3C development. In Schmorrow, D. & Nicholson, D. (Eds.), Advances in design for cross-cultural activities 1 (pp. 332–341). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Reinhart, G., Maloney, S., Brugman, C., Berens, M., Bloomfield, A., Brecht, R., Falk, M., Feinberg, E., Golonka, E., Hefright, B., Karuzis, V., Morrison, M., Slater, R. O., & Strong, R. (2011, Sept). Assessing regional proficiency. College Park, MD: Center for Advanced Study of Language. Contract No. TTO 81234. Retrieved January 6, 2015, from www.casl.umd.edu/sites/default/files/download_5.pdfGoogle Scholar
Rentsch, J. R., Mot, I., & Abbe, A. (2009, June). Identifying the core content and structure of a schema for cultural understanding. Technical Report 1251 (Army Project Number 622785A790). Arlington, VA: US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, K. G. (2008, Spring). Toward an operational definition of Cross-Cultural Competence from interview data. DEOMI Internal Report CCC-08-1.Google Scholar
Rotkoff, S. (2013, Nov. 7). Educating the force for strategic land power. Small Wars Journal. Retrieved January 2, 2015, from http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/educating-the-force-for-strategic-land-powerGoogle Scholar
Salmoni, B. A., & Holmes-Eber, P. (2008). Operational culture for the warfighter: Principles and applications. Quantico, VA: Marine Corps University Press.Google Scholar
Sassenrath, C., Hodges, S. D., & Pfattheicher, S. (2016). It’s all about the self: When perspective taking backfires. Current Directions in Psychology, 25(6), 405–410. DOI: 10.1177/0963721416659253Google Scholar
Schein, E. H. (1990). Organizational culture. American Psychologist, 45, 109–119.Google Scholar
Schmitt, E. (2004, Aug. 26). The reach of war: Abu Ghraib report; abuses at prison tied to officers in intelligence. The New York Times. Retrieved July 8, 2018, from https://nyti.ms/2kZzgDJGoogle Scholar
Schmorrow, D., & Nicholson, D. (Eds.) (2013). Advances in design for cross-cultural activities 1 Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Schroeder, B. (2018, May 8). Soldiers bridge language, cultural barriers at combined resolve exercise. US Department of Defense. Retrieved July 9, 2018, from www.defense.gov/News/Article/Article/1514673/soldiers-bridge-language-cultural-barriers-at-combined-resolve-exercise/Google Scholar
Schwartz, S. H. (1999). A theory of cultural values and some implications for work. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 48, 23–47.Google Scholar
Segall, M. H., Lonner, W. J., & Berry, J. W. (1998). Cross-cultural psychology as a scholarly discipline: On the flowering of culture in behavioral research. American Psychologist, 53, 1101–1110.Google Scholar
Selmeski, B. (2009). Quality enhancement plan: Cross-culturally competent airmen. Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University.Google Scholar
Sieck, W. R., Smith, J. L., & Rasmussen, L. J. (2013). Metacognitive strategies for making sense of cross-cultural encounters. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44, 1007–1023.Google Scholar
Soeters, J. L., & Recht, R. (2001). Convergence or divergence in the multinational classroom? Experiences from the military. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 25, 423–440.Google Scholar
Sutton, J. L., & Gundling, E. (2005). Enabling cultural adaptability. In Strategies to Maintain Combat Readiness during Extended Deployments – A Human Systems Approach (pp. 12.1–12.10). Meeting Proceedings RTO-MP-HFM-124, Paper 12. Neuilly-sur-Seine, France: RTO. Available from www.rto.nato.int/abstracts.asp.Google Scholar
Sutton, J. L., & Pierce, L. G. (2003, April). A Framework for Understanding Cultural Diversity in Cognition and Teamwork. Paper presented at the 8th International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium, Vienna, VA.Google Scholar
Taliaferro, A., Hinkle, W. P., & Gallo, A. O. (2014, Nov. 26). Foreign culture and its effect on US Department of Defense efforts to train and advise foreign security forces. Small Wars Journal. Retrieved December 29, 2014, from http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/foreign-culture-and-its-effect-on-us-department-of-defense-efforts-to-train-and-advise-foreGoogle Scholar
The Minerva Research Initiative (n.d.) Funding opportunities. Retrieved December 28, 2014, from http://minerva.dtic.mil/baa.htmlGoogle Scholar
The US Army (2017, Feb.). The US Army. functional concept for intelligence 2020–2040. TRADOC Pamphlet 525-2-1. Retrieved July 9, 2018, from https://fas.org/irp/doddir/army/tp525–2-1.pdfGoogle Scholar
Triandis, H. C. (1975). Culture training, cognitive complexity, and interpersonal altitudes. In Brislin, R., Bochner, S., & Lonner, W. (Eds.) Cross-cultural perspectives on learning (pp. 39–78). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Triandis, H. C., Brislin, R., & Hui, C. H. (1988). Cross-cultural training across the individualism–collectivism divide. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 12(3), 269–289. DOI: 10.1016/0147-1767(88)90019-3Google Scholar
University of Military Intelligence (n.d.). Cultural awareness and terrorism studies. (Materials for Course 3A-F82/243/F30). Retrieved December 28, 2014, from https://rdl.train.army.mil/catalog-ws/view/100.ATSC/558A0F93-FD12–4496-87C5–83858F039AE5–1276037829519/cultural_awareness/cultural_awareness.htmGoogle Scholar
US Air Force (2009, May). Air Force Culture, Region & Language Flight Plan. Valid as of November 9, 2011: http://cultureandsecurity.yolasite.com/resources/ flightplan%20Gen%20Schwarz%205-09.pdfGoogle Scholar
US Air Force (2011, March 18). Developmental Levels for Language, Region and Culture Learning in the US Air Force. [Backgrounder from US Air Force Culture and Language Center], pp. 1–3.Google Scholar
Ward, C. (2004). Psychological theories of culture contact and their implications for intercultural training and interventions. In Landis, D., Bennett, J. M., & Bennett, M. J. (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training (3rd ed., pp. 185–216). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Warren, R., & Sutton, J. (2008, April). Using a computer game for research on culture and team adaptability: Lessons learned from a NATO experiment. In the Proceedings of the NATO Research and Technology Organization (RTO) Human Factors and Medicine Panel HFM–142 Symposium on Adaptability in Coalition Teamwork. Copenhagen, Denmark. Retrieved on January 6, 2015.Google Scholar
Wen, Z. (2012). Foreign language aptitude. ELT Journal, 66, 233–235.Google Scholar
Winkler, H., & Kerr, R. (2018, June 5). AFPAK Hands: Time for strategic review? Small Wars Journal. Retrieved July 9, 2018. http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/afpak-hands-time-strategic-reviewGoogle Scholar
Winslow, D., Kammhuber, S., & Soeters, J. L. (2004). Diversity management and training in non-American Forces. In Landis, D., Bennett, J. M., & Bennett, M. J. (Eds.), Handbook of Intercultural Training (3rd ed.). (pp. 395–415). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Wisecarver, M., Ferro, G., Foldes, H., Adis, C., Hope, T., & Hill, M. (2012, Sept.). Regional expertise and culture proficiency. Arlington, VA: Personnel Decisions Research Institutes. Contract No. 4003-01C-45-00. Retrieved Jan 6, 2015.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×