Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T10:10:41.398Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

7 - Lexical Tone

from Section II - Prosodic Production

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 November 2021

Rachael-Anne Knight
Affiliation:
City, University of London
Jane Setter
Affiliation:
University of Reading
Get access

Summary

This chapter surveys issues related to the production of tone in the world’s languages. Here the term ‘tone’ refers to the localised (within-syllable) use of fundamental frequency that contrasts lexical meanings (thus excluding pitch accent and stress languages). A comprehensive review of tonal phonetics is presented covering the acoustic correlates of tone, contextual tonal variation, methods used in tone production research, as well as recent research topics in tonal phonetics. We offer suggestions for teaching and learning of tone as a phonetics topic and the chapter concludes with suggestions for future directions for tone production research.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

7.6 References

Abberton, E. R. M. & Fourcin, A. J. (1997). Electrolaryngography. In Ball, M. J. & Code, C., eds., Instrumental Clinical Phonetics. London: Whurr, pp. 119–48.Google Scholar
Abramson, A. S., Luangthongkum, T. & Nye, P. W. (2004). Voice register in Suai (Kuai): An analysis of perceptual and acoustic data. Phonetica, 61, 147–71.Google ScholarPubMed
Alzaidi, M. S., Xu, Y. & Xu, A. (2019). Prosodic encoding of focus in Hijazi Arabic. Speech Communication, 106, 127–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arantes, P. (2015). Time-normalization of fundamental frequency contours: A hands-on tutorial. In Meireles, A. R., ed., Courses on Speech Prosody. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 98123.Google Scholar
Archangeli, D. B., Yip, J. C.-K., Qin, L. & Lee, A. (2017). Phonological and phonetic properties of nasal substitution in Sasak and Javanese. Laboratory Phonology, 8(21), 127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bates, D. M., Mächler, M., Bolker, B. M. & Walker, S. C. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauer, R. S., Cheung, K. H. & Cheung, P. M. (2003). Variation and merger of the rising tones in Hong Kong Cantonese. Language Variation and Change, 15(2), 211–25.Google Scholar
Bidelman, G. M. & Krishnan, A. (2010). Effects of reverberation on brainstem representation of speech in musicians and non-musicians. Brain Research, 1335, 112–25.Google Scholar
Bidelman, G. M., Gandour, J. T. & Krishnan, A. (2011). Musicians and tone-language speakers share enhanced brainstem encoding but not perceptual benefits for musical pitch. Brain and Cognition, 77, 110.Google Scholar
Brunelle, M. (2009). Tone perception in Northern and Southern Vietnamese. Journal of Phonetics, 37, 7996.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brunelle, M. & Kirby, J. P. (2016). Tone and phonation in Southeast Asian languages. Linguistics and Language Compass, 10(4), 191207.Google Scholar
Brunelle, M., Nguyễn, D. D. & Nguyễn, K. H. (2010). A laryngographic and laryngoscopic study of Northern Vietnamese tones. Phonetica, 67(3), 147–69.Google Scholar
Cao, J. & Maddieson, I. (1992). An exploration of phonation types in Wu dialects of Chinese. Journal of Phonetics, 20, 7792.Google Scholar
Chao, Y.-R. (1980). A system of tone letters. Fangyan [方言], (2), 81–3.Google Scholar
Chen, M. Y. (2000). Tone Sandhi: Patterns across Chinese Dialects. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Chen, S., Wiltshire, C. R. & Li, B. (2017a). Statistical modeling of Mandarin tone sandhi: Neutralization of underlying pitch targets. International Journal of Social, Behavioral, Educational, Economic, Business and Industrial Engineering, 11(5), 1119–24.Google Scholar
Chen, S., Zhang, C., McCollum, A. G. & Wayland, R. P. (2017b). Statistical modelling of phonetic and phonologised perturbation effects in tonal and non-tonal languages. Speech Communication, 88, 1738.Google Scholar
Chen, Y. & Xu, Y. (2006). Production of weak elements in speech: Evidence from f0 patterns of neutral tone in Standard Chinese. Phonetica, 63(1), 4775.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheng, C., Xu, Y. & Gubian, M. (2010). Exploring the mechanism of tonal contraction in Taiwan Mandarin. In Proceedings of INTERSPEECH 2010, Makuhari, Japan, pp. 2010–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheng, C., Chen, J.-Y. & Gubian, M. (2013). Are Mandarin sandhi Tone 3 and Tone 2 the same or different? The results of Functional Data Analysis. In Proceedings of the 27th Pacific Asia Conference on Language, Information, and Computation (PACLIC-27), Taipei, pp. 296301.Google Scholar
Collier, R. (1975). Physiological correlates of intonation patterns. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 58(1), 249–56.Google Scholar
Colton, R. H. & Conture, E. G. (1990). Problems and pitfalls of electroglottography. Journal of Voice, 4(1), 1024.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Connell, B. (2002). Tone languages and the universality of intrinsic f0: Evidence from Africa. Journal of Phonetics, 30(1), 101–29.Google Scholar
Connell, B. (2011). Downstep. In van Oostendorp, M., Ewen, C. J., Hume, E. & Rice, K. D., eds., The Blackwell Companion to Phonology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 824–47.Google Scholar
Connell, B. & Ladd, D. R. (1990). Aspects of pitch realisation in Yoruba. Phonology, 7(1), 129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, A. & Wang, Y. (2013). Effects of tone training on Cantonese tone-word learning. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 134(2), EL133–EL139.Google Scholar
Crystal, D. (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.Google Scholar
Curran, P. J., Obeidat, K. & Losardo, D. (2010). Twelve frequently asked questions about growth curve modeling. Journal of Cognition and Development, 11(2), 121–36.Google Scholar
Davidson, L. S. (2006). Comparing tongue shapes from ultrasound imaging using smoothing spline analysis of variance. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 120(1), 407–15.Google Scholar
Deutsch, D., Henthorn, T., Marvin, E. & Xu, H. (2006). Absolute pitch among American and Chinese conservatory students: Prevalence differences, and evidence for a speech-related critical period. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 119(2), 719–22.Google Scholar
Diehl, R. L. & Kluender, K. R. (1989). On the objects of speech perception. Ecological Psychology, 1(2), 121–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Docherty, G. J., González Ochoa, S. D. & Mitchell, N. (2015).Static vs. dynamic perspectives on the realization of vowel nuclei in West Australian English. In Proceedings of the 18th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (ICPhS 2015), Glasgow, Scotland.Google Scholar
Esposito, C. M. (2012). An acoustic and electroglottographic study of White Hmong tone and phonation. Journal of Phonetics, 40(3), 466–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faaborg-Andersen, K. & Buchthal, F. (1956). Action potentials from internal laryngeal muscles during phonation. Nature, 177, 340–1.Google Scholar
Franich, K. (2015). The effect of cognitive load on tonal coarticulation. In Proceedings of the 18th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (ICPhS 2015), Glasgow, Scotland.Google Scholar
Fujisaki, H. & Hirose, K. (1984). Analysis of voice fundamental frequency contours for declarative sentences of Japanese. Journal of the Acoustical Society of Japan [日本音響学会誌], 5(4), 233–42.Google Scholar
Fujisaki, H., Wang, C., Ohno, S. & Gu, W. (2005). Analysis and synthesis of fundamental frequency contours of Standard Chinese using the Command-Response Model. Speech Communication, 47(1–2), 5970.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gandour, J. T. (1977). On the interaction between tone and vowel length: Evidence from Thai dialects. Phonetica, 34, 5465.Google Scholar
Gandour, J. T., Potisuk, S. & Dechongkit, S. (1994). Tonal coarticulation in Thai. Journal of Phonetics, 22, 477–92.Google Scholar
Gick, B. W. (2002). The use of ultrasound for linguistic phonetic fieldwork. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 32(2), 113–21.Google Scholar
Gordon, M. K. & Ladefoged, P. N. (2001). Phonation types: A cross-linguistic overview. Journal of Phonetics, 29, 383406.Google Scholar
Gu, C. (2014). Smoothing spline ANOVA models: R package gss. Journal of Statistical Software, 58(5), 125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gu, W. & Lee, T. (2009). Effects of tone and emphatic focus on f0 contours of Cantonese speech: A comparison with Standard Chinese. Chinese Journal of Phonetics, 2, 133–47.Google Scholar
Gu, W., Hirose, K. & Fujisaki, H. (2007). Analysis of tones in Cantonese speech based on the Command-Response Model. Phonetica, 64(1), 2962.Google Scholar
Gubian, M., Torreira, F. & Boves, L. (2015). Using Functional Data Analysis for investigating multidimensional dynamic phonetic contrasts. Journal of Phonetics, 49, 1640.Google Scholar
Gussenhoven, C. H. M. (2004). The Phonology of Tone and Intonation. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hallé, P. A. (1994). Evidence for tone-specific activity of the sternohyoid muscle in Modern Standard Chinese. Language and Speech, 37(2), 103–24.Google Scholar
’t Hart, J., Collier, R. & Cohen, A. (1990). A Perceptual Study of Intonation: An Experimental-Phonetic Approach to Speech Melody. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Herbst, C. T. & Ternström, S. (2006). A comparison of different methods to measure the EGG contact quotient. Logopedics Phoniatrics Vocology, 31, 126–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herman, R., Beckman, M. E. & Honda, K. (1996). Subglottal pressure and final lowering in English. In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Spoken Language Processing (ICSLP 1996), Philadelphia, PA, pp. 145–8.Google Scholar
Hombert, J.-M. (1977a). Consonant types, vowel height and tone in Yoruba. Studies in African Linguistics, 8(2), 173–90.Google Scholar
Hombert, J.-M. (1977b). Development of tones from vowel height? Journal of Phonetics, 5, 916.Google Scholar
Honda, K. (1995). Laryngeal and extra-laryngeal mechanisms of f0 control. In Bell-Berti, F. & Raphael, L. J., eds., Producing Speech: Contemporary Issues. New York: American Institute of Physics, pp. 215–32.Google Scholar
Honda, K., Hirai, H., Masaki, S. & Shimada, Y. (1999). Role of vertical larynx movement and cervical lordosis in f0 control. Language and Speech, 42(4), 401–11.Google Scholar
Huckvale, M. A. (2016). Using web audio to deliver interactive speech tools in the browser. Phonetician, 111, 7085.Google Scholar
Huckvale, M. A., Brookes, D. M., Dworkin, L. T., Johnson, M. E., Pearce, D. J. & Whitaker, L. (1987). The SPAR speech filing system. In European Conference on Speech Technology, Edinburgh, pp. 1305–8.Google Scholar
Hyman, L. M. & Schuh, R. G. (1974). Universals of tone rules: Evidence from West Africa. Linguistic Inquiry, 5(1), 81115.Google Scholar
Kaisse, E. M. (2006). Sandhi. In Brown, K., ed., Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2nd ed. Oxford: Elsevier, pp. 740–1.Google Scholar
Kirby, J. P. (2011). Illustrations of the IPA: Vietnamese (Hanoi). Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 41(3), 381–92.Google Scholar
Kirby, J. P. & Ladd, D. R. (2016a). Effects of obstruent voicing on vowel f0: Evidence from ‘true voicing’ languages. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 140(4), 2400–11.Google Scholar
Kirby, J. P. & Ladd, D. R. (2016b). Tone–melody correspondence in Vietnamese popular song. In Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Tonal Aspects of Languages (TAL 2016), Buffalo, NY, pp. 14.Google Scholar
Kong, Q. (1987). Influence of tones upon vowel duration in Cantonese. Language and Speech, 30(4), 387400.Google Scholar
Krifka, M. (2008). Basic notions of information structure. Acta Linguistica Hungarica, 55(3), 243–76.Google Scholar
Kuang, J. (2013). The tonal space of contrastive five level tones. Phonetica, 70(1–2), 123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kwon, K.-K. (2003). Prosodic change from tone to vowel length in Korean. In Fikkert, J. P. M. & Jacobs, H., eds., Development in Prosodic Systems. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 6789.Google Scholar
Laniran, Y. O. (1992). Intonation in Tone Languages: The Phonetic Implementation of Tones in Yoruba. PhD thesis, Cornell University.Google Scholar
Laniran, Y. O. & Clements, G. N. (2003). Downstep and high raising: Interacting factors in Yoruba tone production. Journal of Phonetics, 31(2), 203–50.Google Scholar
Laniran, Y. O. & Gerfen, C. (1997). High raising, downstep and downdrift in Igbo. Paper presented at the 71st Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, Chicago, IL.Google Scholar
Law, S.-P., Fung, S. Y. R. & Kung, C. (2013). An ERP study of good production vis-à-vis poor perception of tones in Cantonese: Implications for top-down speech processing. PLOS ONE, 8(e54396), 19.Google Scholar
Lee-Kim, S.-I. (2014). Revisiting Mandarin ‘apical vowels’: An articulatory and acoustic study. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 44(3), 261–82.Google Scholar
Lee, A. & Xu, Y. (2016). Effect of speech rate on pre-low raising in Cantonese. In Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Tonal Aspects of Languages (TAL 2016), Buffalo, NY, pp. 75–9.Google Scholar
Lee, A., Prom-on, S. & Xu, Y. (2017). Pre-low raising in Japanese pitch accent. Phonetica, 74(4), 231–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, Y.-C., Wang, T. & Liberman, M. Y. (2016). Production and perception of tone 3 focus in Mandarin Chinese. Frontiers in Psychology, 7(1058), 113.Google Scholar
Li, Y., Tao, J., Lai, W. & Xu, X. (2017). Quantitative intonation modeling of interrogative sentences for Mandarin speech synthesis. Speech Communication, 89, 92102.Google Scholar
List, G. (1961). Speech melody and song melody in Central Thailand. Ethnomusicology, 5(1), 1632.Google Scholar
Liu, F. (1925). Étude expérimentale sur les tons du chinois. Paris: Société d’édition Les Belles Lettres.Google Scholar
Liu, F., Jiang, C., Thompson, W. F., Xu, Y., Yang, Y. & Stewart, L. (2012). The mechanism of speech processing in congenital amusia: Evidence from Mandarin speakers. PLOS ONE, 7(e30374), 111.Google Scholar
Liu, M., Chen, Y. & Schiller, N. O. (2016). Online processing of tone and intonation in Mandarin: Evidence from ERPs. Neuropsychologia, 91, 307–17.Google Scholar
Liu, S. & Samuel, A. G. (2004). Perception of Mandarin lexical tones when f0 information is neutralized. Language and Speech, 47(2), 109–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loucks, T. M. J., Poletto, C. J., Saxon, K. G. & Ludlow, C. L. (2005). Laryngeal muscle responses to mechanical displacement of the thyroid cartilage in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology, 99, 922–30.Google Scholar
Maddieson, I. (2005). Tone. In Haspelmath, M., Dryer, M. S., Gil, D. & Comrie, B., eds., The World Atlas of Language Structures. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 5861.Google Scholar
Miller, A. L. & Finch, K. B. (2011). Corrected high-frame rate anchored ultrasound with software alignment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 54, 471–86.Google Scholar
Mirman, D. (2014). Growth Curve Analysis and Visualization Using R, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.Google Scholar
Moisik, S. R., Lin, H. & Esling, J. H. (2014). A study of laryngeal gestures in Mandarin citation tones using simultaneous laryngoscopy and laryngeal ultrasound (SLLUS). Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 44(1), 2158.Google Scholar
Mok, P. K. P. & Zuo, D. (2012). The separation between music and speech: Evidence from the perception of Cantonese tones. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 132(4), 2711–20.Google Scholar
Mok, P. K. P., Zuo, D. & Wong, W. Y. P. (2013). Production and perception of a sound change in progress: Tone merging in Hong Kong Cantonese. Language Variation and Change, 25(3), 341–70.Google Scholar
Myers, J. T. & Tsay, J. S.-C. (2008). Neutralization in Taiwan Southern Min tone sandhi. In Hsiao, Y. E., Hsu, H.-C., Wee, L.-H. & Ho, D.-A., eds., Interfaces in Chinese Phonology: Festschrift in Honor of Matthew Y. Chen on his 70th birthday [漢語音韻介面:陳淵泉先生七秩壽慶論文集]. Taipei: Academia Sinica, p. 2411.Google Scholar
Ohala, J. J. (1978). Production of tone. In Fromkin, V. A., ed., Tone: A Linguistic Survey. New York: Academic Press, pp. 539.Google Scholar
Ohala, J. J. & Eukel, B. (1987). Explaining the intrinsic pitch of vowels. In Channon, R. & Shockey, L., eds., In Honor of Ilse Lehiste, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 207–15.Google Scholar
Ohde, R. N. (1984). Fundamental frequency as an acoustic correlate of stop consonant voicing. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 75(1), 224–30.Google Scholar
Payne, J. K., Higenbottam, T. W. & Guindi, G. M. (1980). A surface electrode for laryngeal electromyography. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 43, 853–4.Google Scholar
Peng, S.-H. (2000). Lexical versus ‘phonological’ representations of Mandarin sandhi tones. In Broe, M. B. & Pierrehumbert, J. B., eds., Papers in Laboratory Phonology V: Acquisition and the Lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 152–67.Google Scholar
Pierrehumbert, J. B. (1980). The Finnish possessive suffixes. Language, 56(3), 603–21.Google Scholar
Pike, K. L. (1948). Tone Languages. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Prom-on, S., Xu, Y. & Thipakorn, B. (2009). Modeling tone and intonation in Mandarin and English as a process of target approximation. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 125(1), 405–24.Google Scholar
Prom-on, S., Liu, F. & Xu, Y. (2012). Post-low bouncing in Mandarin Chinese: Acoustic analysis and computational modeling. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 132(1), 421–32.Google Scholar
Prom-on, S., Xu, Y., Gu, W., Arvaniti, A., Nam, H. & Whalen, D. H. (2016). The Common Prosody Platform (CPP): Where theories of prosody can be directly compared. In Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Speech Prosody (SP2016), Boston, MA, pp. 15.Google Scholar
Ramsay, J. O. & Silverman, B. W. (2005). Functional Data Analysis, 2nd ed. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Rialland, A. (1981). Le système tonal du gurma (langue gur de Haute-Volta). Journal of African Languages and Linguistics, 3, 3964.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rialland, A. (2009). The African lax question prosody: Its realisation and geographical distribution. Lingua, 119(6), 928–49.Google Scholar
Sagart, L., Hallé, P. A., de Boysson-Bardies, B. & Arabia-Guidet, C. (1986). Tone production in Modern Standard Chinese: An electromyographic investigation. Cahiers de Linguistique – Asie Orientale, 15(2), 205–21.Google Scholar
Saitou, T., Unoki, M. & Akagi, M. (2005). Development of an f0 control model based on f0 dynamic characteristics for singing-voice synthesis. Speech Communication, 46(3–4), 405–17.Google Scholar
Sapir, S. (1989). The intrinsic pitch of vowels: Theoretical, physiological, and clinical considerations. Journal of Voice, 3(1), 4451.Google Scholar
Schellenberg, M. H. (2009). Singing in a tone language: Shona. In Ojo, A. & Moshi, L., eds., Selected Proceedings of the 39th Annual Conference on African Linguistics: Linguistic Research and Languages in Africa, Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project, pp. 137–44.Google Scholar
Schellenberg, M. H. (2012). Does language determine music in tone languages? Ethnomusicology, 56(2), 266–78.Google Scholar
Shadle, C. H. (1985). Intrinsic fundamental frequency of vowels in sentence context. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 78(5), 1562–7.Google Scholar
Silverman, D. D., Blankenship, B., Kirk, P. & Ladefoged, P. N. (1995). Phonetic structures in Jalapa Mazatec. Anthropological Linguistics, 37(1), 7088.Google Scholar
Snider, K. L. (1998). Phonetic realisation of downstep in Bimoba. Phonology, 15, 77101.Google Scholar
Srisuwan, N., Phukpattaranont, P. & Limsakul, C. (2012). Feature selection for Thai tone classification based on surface EMG. Procedia Engineering, 32, 253–9.Google Scholar
Steele, S. A. (1986). Interaction of vowel f0 and prosody. Phonetica, 43, 92105.Google Scholar
Stepp, C. E. (2012). Surface electromyography for speech and swallowing systems: Measurement, analysis, and interpretation. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 55, 1232–47.Google Scholar
Talkin, D. (1995). A robust algorithm for pitch tracking (RAPT). In W. B. Kleijn and K. K. Paliwal, eds., Speech Coding and Synthesis. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 495518.Google Scholar
Titze, I. R., Baken, R. J., Bozeman, K. W., et al. (2015). Toward a consensus on symbolic notation of harmonics, resonances, and formants in vocalization. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 137(5), 3005–7.Google Scholar
Tsanas, A., Zañartu, M., Little, M. A., Fox, C., Ramig, L. O. & Clifford, G. D. (2014). Robust fundamental frequency estimation in sustained vowels: Detailed algorithmic comparisons and information fusion with adaptive Kalman filtering. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 135(5), 2885–901.Google Scholar
Ullah, S. & Finch, C. F. (2013). Applications of functional data analysis: A systematic review. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 13(43), 112.Google Scholar
Vieira, M. N. (2015). Electroglottography. In Meireles, A. R., ed., Courses on Speech Prosody. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 5297.Google Scholar
Whalen, D. H. & Levitt, A. G. (1995). The universality of intrinsic f0 of vowels. Journal of Phonetics, 27(2), 349–66.Google Scholar
Wong, P. C. M. & Diehl, R. L. (2002). How can the lyrics of a song in a tone language be understood. Psychology of Music, 30, 202–9.Google Scholar
Wong, P. C. M. & Diehl, R. L. (2003). Inter- and intratalker variation in Cantonese level tones. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46, 413–22.Google Scholar
Wong, W. Y. P., Chan, M. K. M. & Beckman, M. E. (2005). An Autosegmental-Metrical analysis and prosodic annotation conventions for Cantonese. In Jun, S.-A., ed., Prosodic Typology: The Phonology of Intonation and Phrasing, Vol. C, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 271300.Google Scholar
Wu, W.-L. (2013). Cantonese Prosody: Sentence-Final Particles and Prosodic Focus. PhD thesis, University College London.Google Scholar
Xu, C. X. & Xu, Y. (2003). Effects of consonant aspiration on Mandarin tones. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33(2), 165–81.Google Scholar
Xu, Y. (1993). Contextual Tonal Variations in Mandarin. PhD thesis, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT.Google Scholar
Xu, Y. (1997). Contextual tonal variations in Mandarin. Journal of Phonetics, 25(1), 6183.Google Scholar
Xu, Y. (1999). Effects of tone and focus on the formation and alignment of f0 contours. Journal of Phonetics, 27(1), 55105.Google Scholar
Xu, Y. (2005). Speech melody as articulatorily implemented communicative functions. Speech Communication, 46(3–4), 220–51.Google Scholar
Xu, Y. (2013). ProsodyPro: A tool for large-scale systematic prosody analysis. In Proceedings of Tools and Resources for the Analysis of Speech Prosody (TRASP 2013), Aix-en-Provence, France, pp. 710.Google Scholar
Xu, Y. & Sun, X. (2002). Maximum speed of pitch change and how it may relate to speech. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 111(3), 1399–413.Google Scholar
Xu, Y. & Wang, Q. E. (2001). Pitch targets and their realization: Evidence from Mandarin Chinese. Speech Communication, 33(4), 319–37.Google Scholar
Xu, Y., Chen, S.-W. & Wang, B. (2012). Prosodic focus with and without post-focus compression: A typological divide within the same language family? Linguistic Review, 29(1), 131–47.Google Scholar
Yip, M. J. W. (2002). Tone. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Yu, K. M. & Lam, H. W. (2014). The role of creaky voice in Cantonese tonal perception. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 136(3), 1320–33.Google Scholar
Yu, S., Lee, T. & Ng, M. L. (2016). Surface electromyographic activity of extrinsic laryngeal muscles in Cantonese tone production. Journal of Signal Processing Systems, 82(2), 287–94.Google Scholar
Yung, B. (1983). Creative process in Cantonese opera I: The role of linguistic tones. Ethnomusicology, 27(1), 2947.Google Scholar
Zhang, J. (2004). The role of contrast-specific and language-specific phonetics in contour tone distribution. In Hayes, B. P., Kirchner, R. M. & Steriade, D., eds., Phonetically Based Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 157–90.Google Scholar
Zhu, X. & Wang, C. (2015). Tone. In Wang, W. S.-Y. & Sun, C., eds., The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 503–15.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×