Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-mlc7c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T13:22:59.730Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

14 - Neurophysiological Foundations and Practical Applications of Motor Imagery

from Part II - Imagery-Based Forms of the Imagination

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 May 2020

By
Aymeric Guillot
Edited by
Anna Abraham
Anna Abraham
Affiliation:
University of Georgia
Get access

Summary

The ability to mentally simulate actions has received tremendous attention from researchers over the last four decades. There is now converging evidence that motor imagery (MI) contributes to improve motor learning and performance, and further promotes motor recovery in case of motor impairment. An important number of experimental studies, comprehensive reviews and meta-analyses, imagery models, and theoretical backgrounds to MI practice have been published in the scientific literature. The present chapter was designed to gather the main contributions to provide an overview of recent data and conceptions related to MI practice, and to offer materials to go beyond the conservative and preconceived thinking about how to incorporate MI into training programs. Practical applications including the major key-components of MI practice ensuring its efficacy, as well as future directions, are therefore considered.

Keywords

Motor imagerymental practicemotor performancemotor learningneurofunctional equivalence
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of the Imagination , pp. 207 - 226
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adam, H., and Galinsky, A. D. (2012). Enclothed Cognition. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(4), 918–925.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beyer, L., Weiss, T., Hansen, E., Wolf, A., and Seidel, A. (1990). Dynamics of Central Nervous Activation during Motor Imagination. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 9, 75–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borst, G. (2013). Neural Underpinning of Object Mental Imagery, Spatial Imagery, and Motor Imagery. In Oschner, K. N. and Kosslyn, S (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Neuroscience, Vol 2: The Cutting Edges. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 74–87.Google Scholar
Boulton, H., and Mitra, S. (2013). Body Posture Modulates Imagined Arm Movements and Responds to Them. Journal of Neurophysiology, 110, 2617–2626.Google Scholar
Callow, N., Hardy, L., and Hall, C. (2001). The Effect of a Motivational General-Mastery Imagery Intervention on the Sport Confidence of High-Level Badminton Players. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 72, 389–400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Callow, N., Roberts, R., and Fawkes, J. Z. (2006). Effects of Dynamic and Static Imagery on Vividness of Imagery, Skiing Performance, and Confidence. Journal of Imagery Research in Sport and Physical Activity, 1, 1–15.Google Scholar
Callow, N., and Waters, A. (2005). The Effect of Kinesthetic Imagery on the Sport Confidence of Flat-Race Horse Jockeys. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 6, 443–459.Google Scholar
Calvo-Merino Glaser, D. E., Grèzes, J., Passingham, R. E., and Haggard, P. (2005). Action Observation and Acquired Motor Skills: An fMRI Study with Expert Dancers. Cerebral Cortex, 15, 1243–1249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, Y., Lee, J. J., Seo, J. H., et al. (2011). Neural Correlates of Motor Imagery for Elite Archers. NMR Biomedicine, 24, 366–372.Google Scholar
Collet, C., Di Rienzo, F., El Hoyek, N., and Guillot, A. (2013). Autonomic Nervous System Correlates in Movement Observation and Motor Imagery. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 415.Google Scholar
Collet, C., Guillot, A., Lebon, F., MacIntyre, T., and Moran, A. (2011). Measuring Motor Imagery Using Psychometric, Behavioural, and Psychophysiological Tools. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 39, 85–92.Google Scholar
Cumming, J., and Williams, S. E. (2012). Imagery: The Role of Imagery in Performance. In Murphy, S (ed.), Handbook of Sport and Performance Psychology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 213–232.Google Scholar
Debarnot, U., Castellani, E., and Guillot, A. (2012). Selective Delayed Gains Following Motor Imagery of Complex Movements. Archives Italiennes de Biologie, 150, 238–250.Google Scholar
Debarnot, U., Castellani, E., Valenza, G., Sebastiani, L., and Guillot, A. (2011). Daytime Naps Improve Motor Imagery Learning. Cognitive and Affective Behavioral Neuroscience, 11, 541–550.Google Scholar
Debarnot, U., Creveaux, T., Collet, C., Doyon, J., and Guillot, A. (2009). Sleep Contribution to Motor Memory Consolidation: A Motor Imagery Study. Sleep, 32, 1559–1565.Google Scholar
Debarnot, U., Maley, L., Rossi, D. D., and Guillot, A. (2010). Motor Interference Does Not Impair the Memory Consolidation of Imagined Movements. Brain and Cognition, 74, 52–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Debarnot, U., Sperduti, M., Di Rienzo, F., and Guillot, A. (2014). Experts’ Bodies, Experts’ Minds: How Physical and Mental Training Shape the Brain. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 280.Google Scholar
Decety, J., Jeannerod, M., Germain, M., and Pastene, J. (1991). Vegetative Response during Imagined Movement Is Proportional to Mental Effort. Behavioural Brain Research, 42, 1–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Decety, J., Perani, D., Jeannerod, M., et al. (1994). Mapping Motor Representations with Positron Emission Tomography. Nature, 371, 600–602.Google Scholar
Demougeot, L., and Papaxanthis, C. (2011). Muscle Fatigue Affects Mental Simulation of Action. Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 10712–10720.Google Scholar
Deschaumes-Molinaro, C., Dittmar, A., and Vernet-Maury, E. (1992). Autonomic Nervous System Response Patterns Correlate with Mental Imagery. Physiology and Behavior, 51, 1021–1027.Google Scholar
Di Rienzo, F., Collet, C., Hoyek, N., and Guillot, A. (2012). Selective Effects of Physical Fatigue on Motor Imagery Accuracy. PLoS One, 7, e47207, 1–11.Google Scholar
Di Rienzo, F., Collet, C., Hoyek, N., and Guillot, A. (2014). Impact of Neurologic Deficits on Motor Imagery: A Systematic Review of Clinical Evaluations. Neuropsychology Review, 24, 116–147.Google Scholar
Di Rienzo, F., Debarnot, U., Daligault, D., et al. (2016). Online and Offline Performance Gains Following Motor Imagery: A Comprehensive Review of Behavioral and Neuroimaging Studies. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 10, article 315, 1–15.Google Scholar
Dickstein, R., Gazit-Grunwald, M., Plax, M., Dunsky, A., and Marcovitz, E. (2005). EMG Activity in Selected Target Muscles during Imagery Rising on Tiptoes in Healthy Adults and Poststroke Hemiparetic Patients. Journal of Motor Behavior, 37, 475–483.Google Scholar
Doyon, J., and Benali, H. (2005). Reorganization and Plasticity in the Adult Brain during Learning of Motor Skills. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 15, 161–167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Driskell, J. E., Copper, C., and Moran, A. (1994). Does Mental Practice Enhance Performance? Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 481–492.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eaves, D. L., Riach, M., Holmes, P. S., and Wright, D. J. (2016). Motor Imagery during Action Observation: A Brief Review of Evidence, Theory and Future Research Opportunities. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 10, 514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ehrsson, H. H., Geyer, S., and Naito, E. (2003). Imagery of Voluntary Movement of Fingers, Toes and Tongue Activates Corresponding Body-Part-Specific Motor Representations. Journal of Neurophysiology, 90, 3304–3316.Google Scholar
Feltz, D. L., and Landers, D. M. (1983). The Effects of Mental Practice on Motor Skill Learning and Performance: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 5, 25–57.Google Scholar
Filgueiras, A., Quintas Conde, E. F., and Hall, C. R. (2017). The Neural Basis of Kinesthetic and Visual Imagery in Sports: An ALE Meta-Analysis. Brain Imaging Behaviour, 12, 1513–1523.Google Scholar
Grangeon, M., Guillot, A., and Collet, C. (2011). Postural Control during Visual and Kinesthetic Motor Imagery. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 36, 47–56.Google Scholar
Guillot, A., and Collet, C. (2005). Contribution from Neurophysiological and Psychological Methods to the Study of Motor Imagery. Brain Research Review, 50, 387–397.Google Scholar
Guillot, A., and Collet, C. (2008). Construction of the Motor Imagery Integrative Model in Sport: A Review and Theoretical Investigation of Motor Imagery Use. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1, 31–44.Google Scholar
Guillot, A., Collet, C., and Dittmar, A. (2005). Influence of Environmental Context on Motor Imagery Quality. Biology of Sport, 22, 215–226.Google Scholar
Guillot, A., Collet, C., Nguyen, V.A., et al. (2009). Brain Activity during Visual versus Kinesthetic Imagery: An fMRI Study. Human Brain Mapping, 30, 2157–2172.Google Scholar
Guillot, A., Di Rienzo, F., Macintyre, T., Moran, A., and Collet, C. (2012a). Imagining Is Not Doing but Involves Specific Motor Commands: A Review of Experimental Data Related to Motor Inhibition. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 1–22.Google Scholar
Guillot, A., Haguenauer, M., Dittmar, A., and Collet, C. (2005). Effect of a Fatiguing Protocol on Motor Imagery Accuracy. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 95(2–3), 186–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guillot, A., Hoyek, N., Louis, M., and Collet, C. (2012b). Understanding the Timing of Motor Imagery: Recent Findings and Future Directions. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 5, 3–22.Google Scholar
Guillot, A., Lebon, F., and Collet, C. (2010). Electromyographic Activity during Motor Imagery. In Guillot, A and Collet, C (eds.), The Neurophysiological Foundations of Mental and Motor Imagery. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 83–93.Google Scholar
Guillot, A., Moschberger, K., and Collet, C. (2013). Coupling Movement with Imagery as a New Perspective for Motor Imagery Practice. Behavioural Brain Functions 9, 8.Google Scholar
Halpern, A. R. (2012). Dynamic Aspects of Musical Imagery. Annals of New York Academy of Science, 1252, 200–205.Google Scholar
Hardwick, R. M., Caspers, S., Eickhoff, S. B., and Swinnen, S. P. (2018). Neural Correlates of Action: Comparing Meta-Analyses of Imagery, Observation, and Execution. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 94, 31–44.Google Scholar
Hétu, S., Grégoire, M., Saimpont, A., et al. (2013). The Neural Network of Motor Imagery: An ALE Meta-Analysis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 37(5), 930–949.Google Scholar
Holmes, P. S., and Collins, D. J. (2001). The PETTLEP Approach to Motor Imagery: A Functional Equivalence Model for Sport Psychologists. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 13, 60–83.Google Scholar
Jackson, P. L., Lafleur, M. F., Malouin, F., Richards, C. L., and Doyon, J. (2003). Functional Cerebral Reorganization Following Motor Sequence Learning through Mental Practice with Motor Imagery. NeuroImage, 20, 1171–1180.Google Scholar
Jackson, P. L., Meltzoff, A. L., and Decety, J. (2006). Neural Circuits Involved in Imitation and Perspective-Taking. NeuroImage, 31, 429–439.Google Scholar
Janssen, J. J., and Sheikh, A. A. (1994). Enhancing Athletic Performance through Imagery: An Overview. In: Sheikh, A. A. and Korn, E. R. (eds.), Imagery and Sports Physical Performance. Amityville, NY: Bayood Publishing, 175–181.Google Scholar
Jeannerod, M. (1994). The Representing Brain: Neural Correlates of Motor Intention and Imagery. Behavioural Brain Sciences, 17, 187–202.Google Scholar
Jeannerod, M. (2001). Neural Simulation of Action: A Unifying Mechanism for Motor Cognition. NeuroImage, 14, S103–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jeannerod, M. (2006). Motor Cognition: What Actions Tell to the Self. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Jiang, D., Edwards, M. G., Mullins, P., and Callow, N. (2015). The Neural Substrates for the Different Modalities of Movement Imagery. Brain and Cognition, 97, 22–31.Google Scholar
Kanthack, T. F. D., Guillot, A., Altimari, L. R., et al. (2016). Selective Efficacy of Static and Dynamic Imagery in Different States of Physical Fatigue. PLoS One, 11, e0149654.Google Scholar
Kanthack, T. F. D., Guillot, A., Clémençon, M., and Di Rienzo, F. (2019). Effect of Physical Fatigue Elicited by Continuous and Intermittent Exercise on Motor Imagery Ability. Submitted for publication.Google Scholar
Lacourse, M. G., Turner, J. A., Randolph-Orr, E., Schandler, S. L., and Cohen, M. J. (2004). Cerebral and Cerebellar Sensorimotor Plasticity Following Motor Imagery-Based Mental Practice of a Sequential Movement. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 41, 505–524.Google Scholar
Lafleur, M. F., Jackson, P. L., Malouin, F., et al. (2002). Motor Learning Produces Parallel Dynamic Functional Changes during the Execution and Imagination of Sequential Foot Movements. NeuroImage, 16, 142–157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lebon, F., Horn, U., Domin, M., and Lotze, M. (2018). Motor Imagery Training: Kinesthetic Imagery Strategy and Inferior Parietal fMRI Activation. Human Brain Mapping, 39, 1805–1813.Google Scholar
Lemos, T., Souza, N. S., Horsczaruk, C. H., et al. (2014). Motor Imagery Modulation of Body Sway Is Task-Dependent and Relies on Imagery Ability. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 290.Google Scholar
Lorey, B., Bischoff, M., Pilgramm, S., et al. (2009). The Embodied Nature of Motor Imagery: The Influence of Posture and Perspective. Experimental Brain Research, 194, 233–243.Google Scholar
Lotze, M., and Halsband, U. (2006). Motor Imagery. Journal of Physiology (Paris), 99, 386–395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lotze, M., Montoya, P., Erb, M., et al. (1999). Activation of Cortical and Cerebellar Motor Areas during Executed and Imagined Hand Movements: An fMRI Study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 11, 491–501.Google Scholar
Lotze, M., Scheler, G., Tan, H. R., Braun, C., and Birbaumer, N. (2003). The Musician’s Brain: Functional Imaging of Amateurs and Professionals during Performance and Imagery. NeuroImage, 20, 1817–1829.Google Scholar
Louis, C., Collet, C., and Guillot, A. (2011). Differences in Motor Imagery Times during Aroused and Relaxed Conditions. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 23, 374–382.Google Scholar
Louis, M., Guillot, A., Maton, S., Doyon, J., and Collet, C. (2008). Effect of Imagined Movement Speed on Subsequent Motor Performance. Journal of Motor Behavior, 40, 117–132.Google Scholar
MacIntyre, T. E., Madan, C. R., Moran, A. P., Collet, C., and Guillot, A. (2018). Motor Imagery, Performance and Motor Rehabilitation. Progress in Brain Research, 240, 141–159.Google Scholar
Macuga, K. L., and Frey, S. H. (2012). Neural Representations Involved in Observed, Imagined, and Imitated Actions Are Dissociable and Hierarchically Organized. NeuroImage, 59, 2798–2807.Google Scholar
Miller, E. (1994). Optimal Sports Performance Imagery. In Sheikh, A. A and Korn, E. R. (eds.), Imagery and Sports Physical Performance. Amityville, NY: Bayood Publishing, 175–181.Google Scholar
Milton, J., Solodkin, A., Hlustik, P., and Small, S. L. (2007). The Mind of Expert Motor Performance Is Cool and Focused. NeuroImage, 35, 804–813.Google Scholar
Mizuguchi, N., Nakata, H., Hayashi, T., et al. (2013). Brain Activity during Motor Imagery of an Action with an Object: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study. Neuroscience Research, 76(3), 150–155.Google Scholar
Mizuguchi, N., Nakata, H., and Kanosue, K. (2014). Activity of Right Premotor-Parietal Regions Dependent upon Imagined Force Level: An fMRI Study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 810.Google Scholar
Moran, A., Guillot, A., MacIntyre, T., and Collet, C. (2012). Re-imagining Mental Imagery: Building Bridges Between Cognitive and Sport Psychology. British Journal of Psychology, 103, 224–247.Google Scholar
Morris, T., Spittle, M., and Perry, C. (2004). Imagery in Sport. In Morris, T and Summers, J (eds.), Sport Psychology: Theory, Applications and Issues. 2nd edition. Brisbane, Australia: Wiley, 344–383.Google Scholar
Mulder, T., de Vries, S., and Zijlstra, S. (2005). Observation, Imagination and Execution of an Effortful Movement: More Evidence for a Central Explanation of Motor Imagery. Experimental Brain Research, 163, 344–351.Google Scholar
Munroe, K. J., Giacobbi, P. R., Hall, C., and Weinberg, R. (2000). The Four Ws of Imagery Use: Where, When, Why and What. The Sport Psychologist, 14, 119–137.Google Scholar
Munzert, J., Lorey, B., and Zentgraf, K. (2009). Cognitive Motor Processes: The Role of Motor Imagery in the Study of Motor Representations. Brain Research Reviews, 60, 306–326.Google Scholar
Murphy, S., Nordin, S. M., and Cumming, J. (2008). Imagery in Sport, Exercise and Dance. In Horn, T (ed.), Advances in Sport Psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 306–315.Google Scholar
Nedelko, V., Hassa, T., Hamzei, F., Schoenfeld, M. A., and Dettmers, C. (2012). Action Imagery Combined with Action Observation Activates more Corticomotor Regions than Action Observation Alone. Journal of Neurology and Physical Therapy, 36(4), 182–188.Google Scholar
O, J., and Hall, C. (2009). A Quantitative Analysis of Athletes’ Voluntary Use of Slow Motion, Real Time, and Fast Motion Images. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21, 15–30.Google Scholar
O’Shea, H., and Moran, A. (2017). Does Motor Simulation Theory Explain the Cognitive Mechanisms Underlying Motor Imagery? A Critical Review. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11, 72.Google Scholar
Paivio, A. (1985). Cognitive and Motivational Functions of Imagery in Human Performance. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Science, 10(4), 22S–28S.Google Scholar
Roure, R., Collet, C., Deschaumes-Molinaro, C., et al. (1999). Imagery Quality Estimated by Autonomic Response Is Correlated to Sporting Performance Enhancement. Physiology and Behavior, 66, 63–72.Google Scholar
Rozand, V., Lebon, F., Papaxanthis, C., and Lepers, R. (2014). Does a Mental Training Session Induce Neuromuscular Fatigue? Medicine Science in Sports and Exercise, 46, 1981–1989.Google Scholar
Ruby, P., and Decety, J. (2001). Effect of Subjective Perspective Taking during Simulation of Action: A PET Investigation of Agency. Nature Neuroscience, 4, 546–550.Google Scholar
Sauvage, C., Jissendi, P., Seignan, S., Manto, M., and Habas, C. (2013). Brain Areas Involved in the Control of Speed during a Motor Sequence of the Foot: Real Movement versus Mental Imagery. Journal of Neuroradiology, 40, 267–280.Google Scholar
Schmidt, T. T., Ostwald, D., and Blankenburg, F. (2014). Imaging Tactile Imagery: Changes in Brain Connectivity Support Perceptual Grounding of Mental Images in Primary Sensory Cortices. NeuroImage, 98, 216–224.Google Scholar
Schuster, C., Hilfiker, R., Amft, O., et al. (2011). Best Practice for Motor Imagery: A Systematic Literature Review on Motor Imagery Training Elements in Five Different Disciplines. BMC Medicine, 9, 75.Google Scholar
Seiler, B. D., Monsma, E. V., and Newman-Norlund, R. D. (2015). Biological Evidence of Imagery Abilities: Intraindividual Differences. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 37, 421–435.Google Scholar
Sharma, N., Jones, P. S., Carpenter, T. A., and Baron, J. C. (2008). Mapping the Involvement of BA 4a and 4p during Motor Imagery. NeuroImage, 41, 92–99.Google Scholar
Shirazipour, C. H., Munroe-Chandler, K. J., Loughead, T. M., and Vander Laan, A. G. (2016). The Effect of Image Speed on Novice Golfers’ Performance in a Putting Task. Journal of Imagery Research in Sport and Physical Activity, 11, 1–12.Google Scholar
Smith, D., Wright, C., Allsopp, A., and Westhead, H. (2007). It’s All in the Mind: PETTLEP-Based Imagery and Sport Performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 19, 80–92.Google Scholar
Solodkin, A., Hlustik, P., Chen, E. E., and Small, S. L. (2004). Fine Modulation in Network Activation during Motor Execution and Motor Imagery. Cerebral Cortex, 14, 1246–1255.Google Scholar
Stins, J. F., Schneider, I. K., Koole, S. L., and Beek, P. J. (2015). The Influence of Motor Imagery on Postural Sway: Differential Effects of Type of Body Movement and Person Perspective. Advances in Cognitive Psychology, 11(3): 77–83.Google Scholar
Taube, W., Mouthon, M., Leukel, C., et al. (2015). Brain Activity during Observation and Motor Imagery of Different Balance Tasks: An fMRI Study. Cortex, 64, 102–114.Google Scholar
van der Meulen, M., Allali, G., Rieger, S. W., Assal, F., and Vuilleumier, P. (2014). The Influence of Individual Motor Imagery Ability on Cerebral Recruitment during Gait Imagery. Human Brain Mapping, 35, 455–470.Google Scholar
Vogt, S., Di Rienzo, F., Collet, C., Collins, A., and Guillot, A. (2013). Multiple Roles of Motor Imagery during Action Observation. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7.Google Scholar
Wang, Y., and Morgan, W. P. (1992). The Effect of Imagery Perspectives on the Psychophysiological Responses to Imagined Exercise. Behavioural Brain Research, 52(2), 167–174.Google Scholar
Wei, G., and Luo, J. (2010). Sport Expert’s Motor Imagery: Functional Imaging of Professional Motor Skills and Simple Motor Skills. Brain Research, 1341, 52–62.Google Scholar
Wright, C. J., and Smith, D. (2009). The Effect of PETTLEP Imagery on Strength Performance. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 7, 18–31.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×