Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T17:19:05.488Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

20 - The Psychology of Women in Entrepreneurship

An International Perspective

from Section 4 - Work and Family Issues

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 July 2020

Fanny M. Cheung
Affiliation:
The Chinese University of Hong Kong
Diane F. Halpern
Affiliation:
Claremont McKenna College, California
Get access

Summary

This chapter examines the psychology of women in entrepreneurship and reviews research from Western and non-Western perspectives. As more women are attracted to engaging in entrepreneurship worldwide, understanding this phenomenon would be of academic and practical relevance. In particular, we focus on discussing some of the stereotypes and characteristics associated with entrepreneurs, entrepreneurial intentions and motivations, and the challenges of gathering financial resources. In the final part of the chapter, we propose several future research directions. There are numerous opportunities to increase our knowledge on women’s entrepreneurship from a psychological and cross-cultural perspective.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Suggested Readings

Elsa T. Chan is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Management at City University of Hong Kong. Her research interests include entrepreneurship, leadership, and race and diversity. Chen was born in Hong Kong and received her undergraduate degree at the University of Hong Kong. She obtained her MSc in Occupational Psychology from University of Nottingham, UK, and her PhD in Management and Entrepreneurship from Leeds School of Business, University of Colorado at Boulder.

Pok Man Tang is currently a doctoral student in the Department of Management at Texas A&M University. His research interests include behavioral ethics, emotions, proactivity, leadership, and social entrepreneurship. He was born in Hong Kong where he studied for his BA and MPhil in Business at the Lingnan University in Hong Kong. His work has appeared in Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes and The Leadership Quarterly.

Shihui Chen is a Lecturer in the School of Business, Ningbo University, China. She was born in China and obtained her PhD from Zhejiang University. During her doctoral studies, she was a visiting scholar at University of Strathclyde in Scotland for one year in 2014. Her primary research interests include female leadership, family firm heterogeneity, and entrepreneurship. Her work has appeared in Asia Pacific Journal of Management, and Science Research Management (in Chinese).

Baum, J. R., Frese, M., & Baron, R. A. (Eds.). (2007). The psychology of entrepreneurship. New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Dacin, M. T., Dacin, P. A., & Tracey, P. (2011). Social entrepreneurship: A critique and future directions. Organization Science, 22(5), 12031213. doi:10.1287/orsc.1100.0620Google Scholar
Foo, M., Murnieks, C. Y., & Chan, E. T. (2014). Feeling and thinking: The role of affect in entrepreneurial cognition. In Mitchell, J. R., Mitchell, R. K., & Randolph-Seng, B. (Eds.), Handbook of entrepreneurial cognition (pp. 154181). Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Frese, M., & Gielnik, M. M. (2014). The psychology of entrepreneurship. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1(1), 413438. doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091326CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jennings, J. E., & Brush, C. G. (2013). Research on women entrepreneurs: Challenges to (and from) the broader entrepreneurship literature? Academy of Management Annals, 7(1), 663715. doi:10.1080/19416520.2013.782190Google Scholar
Shepherd, D. A. (2015). Party on! A call for entrepreneurship research that is more interactive, activity based, cognitively hot, compassionate, and prosocial. Journal of Business Venturing, 30(4), 489507. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2015.02.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar

References

Ahl, H. (2006). Why research on women entrepreneurs needs new directions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30(5), 595621. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006.00138.xGoogle Scholar
Ahl, H. (2007). Sex business in the toy store: A narrative analysis of a teaching case. Journal of Business Venturing, 22(5), 673693. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2006.10.007Google Scholar
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179211. doi:10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-TGoogle Scholar
Alsos, G. A., Isaksen, E. J., & Ljunggren, E. (2006). New venture financing and subsequent business growth in men- and women-led businesses. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30(5), 667686. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006.00141.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alsos, G. A., & Ljunggren, E. (2017). The role of gender in entrepreneur–investor relationships: A signaling theory approach. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 41(4), 567590. doi:10.1111/etap.12226Google Scholar
Arenius, P., & Autio, E. (2006). Financing of small businesses: Are Mars and Venus more alike than different? Venture Capital, 8(2), 93107. doi:10.1080/13691060500433793Google Scholar
Austin, J., Stevenson, H., & Wei-Skillern, J. (2006). Social and commercial entrepreneurship: Same, different, or both? Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30(1), 122. doi:10.5700/rausp1055Google Scholar
Barasinska, N., & Schäfer, D. (2014). Is crowdfunding different? Evidence on the relation between gender and funding success from a German peer-to-peer lending platform. German Economic Review, 15(4), 436452. doi:10.1111/geer.12052Google Scholar
Baron, R. A. (2008). The role of affect in the entrepreneurial process. Academy of Management Review, 33(2), 328340. doi:10.5465/amr.2008.31193166Google Scholar
Becker-Blease, J. R., & Sohl, J. E. (2007). Do women-owned businesses have equal access to angel capital? Journal of Business Venturing, 22(4), 503521. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2006.06.003Google Scholar
Becker-Blease, J. R., & Sohl, J. E. (2011). The effect of gender diversity on angel group investment. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35(4), 709733. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2010.00391.xGoogle Scholar
Belleflamme, P., Lambert, T., & Schwienbacher, A. (2014). Crowdfunding: Tapping the right crowd. Journal of Business Venturing, 29(5), 585609. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2013.07.003Google Scholar
Bird, B. (1988). Implementing entrepreneurial ideas: The case for intention. Academy of Management Review, 13(3), 442453. doi:10.5465/amr.1988.4306970Google Scholar
Brenner, O. C., Tomkiewicz, J., & Schein, V. E. (1989). The relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics revisited. Academy of Management Journal, 32(3), 662669. doi:10.5465/256439Google Scholar
Brody, L. R., & Hall, J. A. (2008). Gender and emotion in context. In Lewis, M., Haviland-Jones, J. M., & Barrett, F. L. (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (3rd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 395408). New York: Guildford Press.Google Scholar
Brush, C. G., de Bruin, A., & Welter, F. (2009). A gender‐aware framework for women’s entrepreneurship. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 1(1), 824. doi:10.1108/17566260910942318Google Scholar
Burgess, D., & Borgida, E. (1999). Who women are, who women should be: Descriptive and prescriptive gender stereotyping in sex discrimination. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 5(3), 665692. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.5.3.665Google Scholar
Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiationPsychological Review106(4), 676713.Google Scholar
Buttner, E. H., & Rosen, B. (1988). Bank loan officers’ perceptions of the characteristics of men, women, and successful entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Venturing, 3(3), 249258. doi:10.1016/0883-9026(88)90018-3Google Scholar
Calás, M. B., Smircich, L., & Bourne, K. A. (2009). Extending the boundaries: Reframing “entrepreneurship as social change” through feminist perspectives. Academy of Management Review, 34(3), 552569. doi:10.5465/amr.2009.40633597CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, N., Brush, C., Greene, P., Gatewood, E., & Hart, M. (2003). Women entrepreneurs who break through to equity financing: The influence of human, social and financial capital. Venture Capital, 5(1), 128. doi:10.1080/1369106032000082586Google Scholar
Carter, N., Gartner, W., Shaver, K., & Gatewood, E. (2003). The career reasons of nascent entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Venturing, 18(1), 1339. doi:10.1016/S0883-9026(02)00078-2Google Scholar
Carter, S., Shaw, E., Lam, W., & Wilson, F. (2007). Gender, entrepreneurship, and bank lending: The criteria and processes used by bank loan officers in assessing applications. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 31(3), 427444. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00181.xGoogle Scholar
Chaganti, R. (1986). Management in women-owned enterprises. Journal of Small Business Management, 24(4), 1829.Google Scholar
Chen, S., Fang, H. C., MacKenzie, N. G., Carter, S., Chen, L., & Wu, B. (2018). Female leadership in contemporary Chinese family firms. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 35(1), 181211. doi:10.1007/s10490-017-9515-2Google Scholar
Chen, X.-P., & Chen, C. C. (2004). On the intricacies of the Chinese guanxi: a process model of guanxi development. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 21(3), 305324. doi:10.1023/B:APJM.0000036465.19102.d5Google Scholar
Chowdhury, S. (2005). Demographic diversity for building an effective entrepreneurial team: Is it important? Journal of Business Venturing, 20(6), 727746. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2004.07.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chua, R. Y. J., Morris, M. W., & Ingram, P. (2009). Guanxi vs networking: Distinctive configurations of affect- and cognition-based trust in the networks of Chinese vs American managers. Journal of International Business Studies, 40(3), 490508. doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400422Google Scholar
Cliff, J. E. (1998). Does one size fit all? Exploring the relationship between attitudes towards growth, gender, and business size. Journal of Business Venturing, 13(6), 523542. doi:10.1016/S0883-9026(97)00071-2Google Scholar
Coleman, S. (2000). Access to capital and terms of credit: A comparison of men- and women-owned small businesses. Journal of Small Business Management, 38(3), 3752.Google Scholar
Comings, D. E., Gonzalez, N., Wu, S., Gade, R., Muhleman, D., Saucier, G., … MacMurray, J. P. (1999). Studies of the 48 bp repeat polymorphism of the DRD4 gene in impulsive, compulsive, addictive behaviors: Tourette syndrome, ADHD, pathological gambling, and substance abuse. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 88(4), 358368. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8628(19990820)88:4<358::AID-AJMG13>3.0.CO;2-GGoogle Scholar
Constantinidis, C., Cornet, A., & Asandei, S. (2006). Financing of women-owned ventures: The impact of gender and other owner- and firm-related variables. Venture Capital, 8(2), 133157. doi:10.1080/13691060600572557Google Scholar
Dacin, M. T., Dacin, P. A., & Tracey, P. (2011). Social entrepreneurship: A critique and future directions. Organization Science, 22(5), 12031213. doi:10.1287/orsc.1100.0620Google Scholar
Datta, P. B., & Gailey, R. (2012). Empowering women through social entrepreneurship: Case study of a women’s cooperative in India. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 36(3), 569587. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2012.00505.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Bruin, A., Brush, C. G., & Welter, F. (2006). Introduction to the special issue: Towards building cumulative knowledge on women’s entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30(5), 585593. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006.00137.xGoogle Scholar
De Bruin, A., Brush, C. G., & Welter, F. (2007). Advancing a framework for coherent research on women’s entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 31(3), 323339. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00176.xGoogle Scholar
DeMartino, R., & Barbato, R. (2003). Differences between women and men MBA entrepreneurs: Exploring family flexibility and wealth creation as career motivators. Journal of Business Venturing, 18(6), 815832. doi:10.1016/S0883-9026(03)00003-XCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eagly, A. H. (2007). Female leadership advantage and disadvantage: Resolving the contradictions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31(1), 112. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00326.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eagly, A. H., & Johnson, B. T. (1990). Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 233256. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.2.233Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109(3), 573598. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.109.3.573Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1999). The origins of sex differences in human behavior: Evolved dispositions versus social roles. American Psychologist, 54, 408423. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.54.6.408Google Scholar
Eddleston, K. A., Ladge, J. J., Mitteness, C., & Balachandra, L. (2016). Do you see what I see? Signaling effects of gender and firm characteristics on financing entrepreneurial ventures. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 40(3), 489514. doi:10.1111/etap.12117Google Scholar
Eddleston, K. A., & Powell, G. N. (2012). Nurturing entrepreneurs’ work–family balance: A gendered perspective. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 36(3), 513541. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2012.00506.xGoogle Scholar
Elfenbein, H. A., & Ambady, N. (2003). Universals and cultural differences in recognizing emotions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(5), 159164. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.01252Google Scholar
Fagenson, E. A., & Marcus, E. C. (1991). Perceptions of the sex-role stereotypic characteristics of entrepreneurs: Women’s evaluations. Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice, 15, 3347. doi:10.1177/104225879101500406Google Scholar
Fairlie, R. W., & Robb, A. M. J. S. B. E. (2009). Gender differences in business performance: Evidence from the characteristics of business owners survey. Small Business Economics, 33(4), 375395. doi:10.1007/s11187-009-9207-5Google Scholar
Feingold, A. (1994). Gender differences in personality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 429456. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.3.429Google Scholar
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. New York: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Foo, M., Murnieks, C. Y., & Chan, E. T. (2014). Feeling and thinking: The role of affect in entrepreneurial cognition. In Mitchell, J. R., Mitchell, R. K., & Randolph-Seng, B. (Eds.), Handbook of entrepreneurial cognition (pp. 154181). Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Forgas, J. P., & George, J. M. (2001). Affective influences on judgments and behavior in organizations: An information processing perspective. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 86(1), 334. doi:10.1006/obhd.2001.2971Google Scholar
Frijda, N. H. (1993). Moods, emotion episodes, and emotions. In Lewis, M. & Haviland, J. M. (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 381403). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Gao, X. (2009). Nu xing chuang ye jia ge ti, zu zhi ji huan jing te zheng de yan jiu zong shu [Characteristics of women entrepreneurs at the levels of individuals, organizations and environments]. Fu nu yan jiu lun cong, 94(4), 8590.Google Scholar
Ge, B., & Jiang, H. (2014). Nu xing chuang ye yi xiang yan jiu qian yan: ji yu xiang guan wen xian de tong ji fen xi [Research frontiers of women’s entrepreneurial intention: Based on the analysis of literatures]. Qing bao ke xue, 32(5), 137156.Google Scholar
Global Entrepreneurship Research Association. (2019). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 2018/2019 Global Report. www.gemconsortium.org/report/50213Google Scholar
Godwin, L. N., Stevens, C. E., & Brenner, N. L. (2006). Forced to play by the rules? Theorizing how mixed-sex founding teams benefit women entrepreneurs in male-dominated contexts. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30(5), 623642. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006.00139.xGoogle Scholar
Gorbatai, A. D., & Nelson, L. (2015). Gender and the language of crowdfunding. Academy of Management Proceedings, 2015(1), 15785. doi:10.5465/ambpp.2015.15785abstractGoogle Scholar
Gupta, V. K., & Bhawe, N. M. (2007). The influence of proactive personality and stereotype threat on women’s entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 13(4), 7385. doi:10.1177/10717919070130040901Google Scholar
Gupta, V. K., Goktan, A. B., & Gunay, G. (2014). Gender differences in evaluation of new business opportunity: A stereotype threat perspective. Journal of Business Venturing, 29(2), 273288. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2013.02.002Google Scholar
Gupta, V. K., Turban, D. B., & Bhawe, N. M. (2008). The effect of gender stereotype activation on entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(5), 10531061. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.93.5.1053Google Scholar
Gupta, V. K., Turban, D. B., Wasti, S. A., & Sikdar, A. (2009). The role of gender stereotypes in perceptions of entrepreneurs and intentions to become an entrepreneur. Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice, 33(2), 397417. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2009.00296.xGoogle Scholar
Harrison, R. T., & Mason, C. M. (2007). Does gender matter? Women business angels and the supply of entrepreneurial finance. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 31(3), 445472. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00182.xGoogle Scholar
Hechavarria, D. M., Ingram, A., Justo, R., & Terjesen, S. (2012). Are women more likely to pursue social and environmental entrepreneurship? In Hughes, K. D. & Jennings, J. E. (Eds.), Global women’s entrepreneurship research: Diverse settings, questions and approaches (pp. 135151). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Heilman, M. E. (1983). Sex bias in work settings: The lack of fit model. Research in Organizational Behavior, 5, 269298.Google Scholar
Heilman, M. E. (2001). Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women’s ascent up the organizational ladder. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 657674. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00234Google Scholar
Heilman, M. E. (2012). Gender stereotypes and workplace bias. Research in Organizational Behavior, 32, 113135. doi:10.1016/j.riob.2012.11.003Google Scholar
Heilman, M. E., & Parks-Stamm, E. J. (2007). Gender stereotypes in the workplace: Obstacles to women’s career progress. In Correll, S. J. (Ed.), Social Psychology of Gender (Advances in Group Processes) (Vol. 24, pp. 4777). Bingley: Emerald Group.Google Scholar
Hisrich, R. D., & Brush, C. G. (1983). The woman entrepreneur: Implications of family, educational, and occupational experience. In Hornaday, J. A., Timmons, J. A., & Vesper, K. H. (Eds.), Frontiers of entrepreneurship research (Vol. 2, pp. 255270). Wellesley, MA: Babson College.Google Scholar
Hu, H., & Xiao, J. (2007). Bu tong chuang ye dong ji xia de nu xing chuang ye mo shi yan jiu [Research on different entrepreneurial intentions in women’s entrepreneurship]. Jing ji wen ti tan suo, 8, 2439.Google Scholar
Hughes, K. D. (2003). Pushed or pulled? Women’s entry into self-employment and small business ownership. Gender, Work & Organization, 10(4), 433454. doi:10.1111/1468-0432.00205Google Scholar
Hughes, K. D., Jennings, J. E., Brush, C., Carter, S., & Welter, F. (2012). Extending women’s entrepreneurship research in new directions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 36(3), 429442. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2012.00504.xGoogle Scholar
Hussain, J. G., Scott, J. M., Harrison, R. T., & Millman, C. (2010). “Enter the dragoness”: Firm growth, finance, guanxi, and gender in China. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 25(2), 137156. doi:10.1108/17542411011026302Google Scholar
Jennings, J. E., & Brush, C. G. (2013). Research on women entrepreneurs: Challenges to (and from) the broader entrepreneurship literature? Academy of Management Annals, 7(1), 663715. doi:10.1080/19416520.2013.782190Google Scholar
Jennings, J. E., & McDougald, M. S. (2007). Work–family interface experiences and coping strategies: Implications for entrepreneurship research and practice. Academy of Management Review, 32(3), 747760. doi:10.2307/20159332Google Scholar
Johnson, W. (2009). So what or so everything? Bringing behavior genetics to entrepreneurship research. Journal of Business Venturing, 24(1), 2326. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2007.11.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalnins, A., & Williams, M. (2014). When do female-owned businesses out-survive male-owned businesses? A disaggregated approach by industry and geography. Journal of Business Venturing, 29(6), 822835. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2013.12.001Google Scholar
Kanze, D., Huang, L., Conley, M. A., & Higgins, E. T. (2018). We ask men to win and women not to lose: Closing the gender gap in startup funding. Academy of Management Journal, 61(2), 586614. doi:10.5465/amj.2016.1215Google Scholar
Kelley, D. J., Baumer, B. S., Brush, C., Greene, P. G., Mahdavi, M., Cole, M. M. M., … Association, G. E. R. (2017). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor - Women’s Entrepreneurship 2016/2017 Report. www.gemconsortium.org/Google Scholar
Kreiser, P. M., Marino, L. D., Kuratko, D. F., & Weaver, K. M. (2013). Disaggregating entrepreneurial orientation: The non-linear impact of innovativeness, proactiveness and risk-taking on SME performance. Small Business Economics, 40(2), 273291. doi:10.1007/s11187-012-9460-xGoogle Scholar
Krueger, N., Reilly, M., & Carsrud, A. (2000). Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing, 15, 411432. doi:10.1016/S0883-9026(98)00033-0Google Scholar
Leung, A. S. M. (2003). Feminism in transition: Chinese culture, ideology and the development of the women’s movement in China. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 20(3), 359374. doi:10.1023/a:1024049516797Google Scholar
Lewis, P. (2006). The quest for invisibility: Female entrepreneurs and the masculine norm of entrepreneurship. Gender, Work & Organization, 13(5), 453469. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0432.2006.00317.xGoogle Scholar
Liao, F. (2009). Zhong guo nu xing chuang ye tan tao [An examination of women’s entrepreneurship in China]. Zong cai, 6, 6869.Google Scholar
Liu, P., Li, L., & Wang, X. (2013). Qi ye jia jing shen de xing bie cha yi [Gender differences in entrepreneurship]. Guan li shi jie, 8, 126135.Google Scholar
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57, 705717. doi:10.1037//0003-066x.57.9.705Google Scholar
Luo, D., & Guan, P. (2008). Jing ji zhuan xing qi zhong guo nu xing chuang ye zhe she hui zi ben yu rong zi zhan lue yan jiu [Research on social capital and financing strategy of Chinese female entrepreneurs in economic transition period]. Ke ji jin bu yu dui ce, 25(11), 226229.Google Scholar
Marlow, S. (2002). Women and self-employment: A part of or apart from theoretical construct? The International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 3(2), 8391. doi:10.5367/000000002101299088Google Scholar
Marlow, S., & McAdam, M. (2013). Gender and entrepreneurship: Advancing debate and challenging myths; exploring the mystery of the under‐performing female entrepreneur. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 19(1), 114124. doi:10.1108/13552551311299288Google Scholar
Marlow, S., & Patton, D. (2005). All credit to men? Entrepreneurship, finance, and gender. Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice, 29(6), 717735. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2005.00105.xGoogle Scholar
Marom, D., Robb, A., & Sade, O. (2016). Gender dynamics in crowdfunding (Kickstarter): Evidence on entrepreneurs, investors, deals and taste-based discrimination. ssrn.com/abstract=2442954. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2442954Google Scholar
Mohammadi, A., & Shafi, K. (2018). Gender differences in the contribution patterns of equity-crowdfunding investors. Small Business Economics, 50(2), 275287. doi:10.1007/s11187-016-9825-7Google Scholar
Mu, R., Liu, Y., & Wang, Z. (2017). Nu xing she hui wang luo guan xi yu chuang ye rong zi lie shi [Women’s social network and venture capital disadvantages]. Ke ji jin bu yu dui ce, 34(8), 8085.Google Scholar
Naldi, L., Nordqvist, M., Sjöberg, K., & Wiklund, J. (2007). Entrepreneurial orientation, risk taking, and performance in family firms. Family Business Review, 20(1), 3347. doi:10.1111/j.1741-6248.2007.00082.xGoogle Scholar
Nicolaou, N., & Shane, S. (2014). Biology, neuroscience, and entrepreneurship. Journal of Management Inquiry, 23(1), 98100. doi:10.1177/1056492613485914Google Scholar
Nicolaou, N., Shane, S., Cherkas, L., Hunkin, J., & Spector, T. D. (2008). Is the tendency to engage in entrepreneurship genetic? Management Science, 54(1), 167179. doi:10.1287/mnsc.1070.0761Google Scholar
Orser, B. J., Riding, A. L., & Manley, K. (2006). Women entrepreneurs and financial capital. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30(5), 643665. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006.00140.xGoogle Scholar
Peng, J. (2009). Nu xing chuang ye ji qi rong zi wen ti tan tao [Discussion on women’s entrepreneurship and finance]. Jing ji yan jiu dao kan, 42(4), 6465.Google Scholar
Powell, G. N., & Eddleston, K. A. (2013). Linking family-to-business enrichment and support to entrepreneurial success: Do female and male entrepreneurs experience different outcomes? Journal of Business Venturing, 28(2), 261280. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2012.02.007Google Scholar
Ridgeway, C. L. (2001). Gender, status, and leadership. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 637655. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00233Google Scholar
Robb, A. M., & Watson, J. (2012). Gender differences in firm performance: Evidence from new ventures in the United States. Journal of Business Venturing, 27(5), 544558. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2011.10.002Google Scholar
Russell, J. A., & Barrett, L. F. (1999). Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: Dissecting the elephant. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(5), 805819. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1979.tb01511.xGoogle Scholar
Saparito, P., Elam, A., & Brush, C. (2013). Bank–firm relationships: Do perceptions vary by gender? Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 37(4), 837858. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2012.00524.xGoogle Scholar
Schein, V. E. (1973). The relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 57(2), 95100. doi:10.1037/h0037128Google Scholar
Schein, V. E. (2001). A global look at psychological barriers to women’s progress in management. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 675688. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00235Google Scholar
Schlaegel, C., & Koenig, M. (2014). Determinants of entrepreneurial intent: A meta-analytic test and integration of competing models. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 38(2), 291332. doi:10.1111/etap.12087Google Scholar
Sexton, D. L., & Bowman-Upton, N. (1990). Female and male entrepreneurs: Psychological characteristics and their role in gender-related discrimination. Journal of Business Venturing, 5(1), 2936. doi:10.1016/0883-9026(90)90024-NGoogle Scholar
Shapero, A. (1982). Social dimensions of entrepreneurship. In Kent, C., Sexton, D., & Vesper, K. H. (Eds.), The encyclopedia of entrepreneurship (pp. 7290). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Shepherd, D. A. (2015). Party on! A call for entrepreneurship research that is more interactive, activity based, cognitively hot, compassionate, and prosocial. Journal of Business Venturing, 30(4), 489507. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2015.02.001Google Scholar
Teoh, H. Y., & Foo, S. L. (1997). Moderating effects of tolerance for ambiguity and risktaking propensity on the role conflict-perceived performance relationship: Evidence from Singaporean entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Venturing, 12(1), 6781. doi:10.1016/S0883-9026(96)00035-3Google Scholar
The Diana Project. (2018). The Diana Project. http://dianaproject.org/Google Scholar
Thébaud, S. (2015). Business as plan B: Institutional foundations of gender inequality in entrepreneurship across 24 industrialized countries. Administrative Science Quarterly, 60(4), 671711. doi:10.1177/0001839215591627Google Scholar
Vecchio, R. P. (2002). Leadership and gender advantage. Leadership Quarterly, 13(6), 643671. doi:10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00156-XGoogle Scholar
Verheul, I., & Thurik, R. (2001). Start-up capital: “Does gender matter?” Small Business Economics, 16(4), 329346. doi:10.1023/a:1011178629240Google Scholar
Watt, H. M., & Eccles, J. S. (Eds.). (2008). Gender and occupational outcomes: Longitudinal assessments of individual, social, and cultural influences. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Welsh, D. H. B., Memili, E., Kaciak, E., & Ochi, M. (2014). Japanese women entrepreneurs: Implications for family firms. Journal of Small Business Management, 52(2), 286305. doi:10.1111/jsbm.12099Google Scholar
Wheeler, S. C., & Petty, R. E. (2001). The effects of stereotype activation on behavior: A review of possible mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 797826. doi:10.1037//0033-2909.127.6.797Google Scholar
Whyte, D. (1996). The heart aroused: Poetry and the preservation of the soul in corporate America. New York: Crown Business.Google Scholar
Wu, J., & Bao, L. (2008). Ji yu xin chuang qi ye de nu xing chuang ye cheng chang mo xing yan jiu – yi zhe jiang chao jie ji tuan wei li [Research on female entrepreneurial growth model – Using Zhejiang Chaojie Group as an example]. Ke yan guan li, 1, 2224.Google Scholar
Wu, J., Li, Y., & Yao, X. (2016). Nu xing chuang ye rong zi yan jiu zong shu [A review of literature on women’s entrepreneurial finance]. Fu nu yan jiu lun cong, 138(6), 118125.Google Scholar
Wu, Z., & Chua, J. H. (2012). Second-order gender effects: The case of U.S. small business borrowing cost. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 36(3), 443463. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2012.00503.xGoogle Scholar
Yao, X., & Dai, Y. (2011). Guo nei nu xing chuang ye yan jiu shu ping [A review of Chinese female entrepeneurship research]. Jing ji wen ti tan suo, 1, 9498.Google Scholar
Yao, X., Qiao, S., & Long, D. (2014). Ji yu xing bie cha yi de nu xing chuang ye ji xiao yan jiu zong shu [A review of the women entrepreneurship performance research based on gender differences]. Hua dong jing ji guang li, 28(7), 157161.Google Scholar
Zhang, Z., Zyphur, M. J., Narayanan, J., Arvey, R. D., Chaturvedi, S., Avolio, B. J., … Larsson, G. (2009). The genetic basis of entrepreneurship: Effects of gender and personality. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 110(2), 93107. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2009.07.002Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×