Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T00:38:53.286Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

4 - Why Did People Become Christians in the Pre-Constantinian World?

Reframing the Question

from Part I - Contested Contexts

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 August 2023

Bruce W. Longenecker
Affiliation:
Baylor University, Texas
David E. Wilhite
Affiliation:
Baylor University, Texas
Get access

Summary

The question contained in this chapter’s title continues to elicit many answers from academics, particularly in publications addressed to a larger audience.1 As has been observed by more than one scholar, however, the answers have not changed much since the time of Edward Gibbon (1737–94).2 Moreover, in my view the answers typically given are not fully convincing, so I take the opportunity here to reconsider the question – in fact, even to question the question. Instead of a critical review of the answers typically offered, I seek to deconstruct the question, using the words that compose the title of the chapter as a guide for uncovering the many assumptions that lay behind it. As a result, I will complicate the picture and illustrate the many ways that things can go wrong if fundamental assumptions embedded within the question are left unexposed, as is usually the case.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Select Bibliography

Ascough, Richard S. Paul’s Macedonian Associations: The Social Context of Philippians and 1 Thessalonians (WUNT 161; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003).Google Scholar
Ausbüttel, Frank M.Die Tolerierung der Christen in der Zeit von Gallienus bis zur sogenannten Constantinischen Wende (260–313),” Millennium 12 (2015), 4174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Babcock, William S.MacMullen on conversion: A response,” Second Century 5 (1986), 82–9.Google Scholar
Barnes, Timothy. Constantine and Eusebius (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981).Google Scholar
Barnes, Timothy.Constantine: Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire (Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell, 2014).Google Scholar
Barnes, Timothy. Early Christian Hagiography and Roman History, 2nd ed. (Tria Corda 5; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2016).Google Scholar
Barnes, Timothy. “Legislation against the Christians,” Journal of Roman Studies 58 (1968), 3250.Google Scholar
Barrett, Charles Kingsley. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles, 2 vols. (ICC; Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1994–8).Google Scholar
Beard, Mary, North, John A., and Price, Simon R. F.. Religions of Rome (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).Google Scholar
Beck, Roger. “The religious market of the Roman empire: Rodney Stark and Christianity’s pagan competition.” Pages 233–52 in Religious Rivalries in the Early Roman Empire and the Rise of Christianity. Edited by Vaage, Leif E. (Studies in Christianity and Judaism 18; Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2006).Google Scholar
Becker, Adam H., and Reed, Annette Yoshiko (eds.) The Ways That Never Parted: Jews and Christians in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages (Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism 95; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003).Google Scholar
Blasi, Anthony J. Early Christianity as a Social Movement (Toronto Studies in Religion 5; New York: Lang, 1988).Google Scholar
Blois, Lukas de. The Policy of the Emperor Gallienus (Studies of the Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society 7; Leiden: Brill, 1976).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bøgh, Birgitte. “Beyond Nock: From adhesion to conversion in the mystery cults,” History of Religions 54 (2015), 260–87.Google Scholar
Boin, Douglas. Coming Out Christian in the Roman World: How the Followers of Jesus Made a Place in Caesar’s Empire (New York: Bloomsbury, 2015).Google Scholar
Bourdieu, Pierre. The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature. Edited by Johnson, Randal (European Perspectives; New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).Google Scholar
Bratož, Rajko. “Forma e contenuto della tolleranza religiosa dall’editto di Gallieno all’editto di Galerio.” Pages 2546 in Costantino prima e dopo Costantino = Constantine Before and After Constantine (Munera 35; Bari: Edipuglia, 2012).Google Scholar
Bremmer, Jan N. The Rise of Christianity through the Eyes of Gibbon, Harnack and Rodney Stark: A Valedictory Lecture on the Occasion of His Retirement from the Chair of Religious Studies, in the Faculty of Theology and Religious Studies (Groningen: Barkhuis, 2010).Google Scholar
Brent, Allen. Cyprian and Roman Carthage (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).Google Scholar
Brown, Peter. The Cult of the Saints: Its Rise and Function in Latin Christianity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981 [enlarged ed., 2014]).Google Scholar
Brown, Peter. The Making of Late Antiquity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978).Google Scholar
Cheung, Alex T. Idol Food in Corinth: Jewish Background and Pauline Legacy (JSNT Suppl. 176; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1999).Google Scholar
Clarke, Graeme W. “Third-century Christianity.” Pages 589671 in The Crisis of Empire, a.d. 193–337. Edited by Garnsey, Peter, Bowman, Alan K., and Cameron, Averil (CAH 12; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).Google Scholar
Concannon, Cavan W. “When You Were Gentiles”: Specters of Ethnicity in Roman Corinth and Paul’s Corinthian Correspondence (Synkrisis; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corke-Webster, James. “The early reception of Pliny the Younger in Tertullian of Carthage and Eusebius of Caesarea,” Classical Quarterly 67 (2017), 247–62.Google Scholar
Corke-Webster, James. “The Roman persecutions.” Pages 3350 in The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Christian Martyrdom. Edited by Middleton, Paul (Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell, 2020).Google Scholar
Corke-Webster, James. “Trouble in Pontus: The Pliny–Trajan correspondence on the Christians reconsidered,” Transactions of the American Philological Association 147 (2017), 371411.Google Scholar
Crook, Zeba A. Reconceptualising Conversion: Patronage, Loyalty, and Conversion in the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean (BZNW 130; Berlin: De Gruyter, 2004).Google Scholar
Drake, Harold A.Models of Christian expansion.” Pages 113 in The Spread of Christianity in the First Four Centuries: Essays in Explanation. Edited by Harris, William V. (Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition 27; Leiden: Brill, 2005).Google Scholar
Dunn, Geoffrey D.Cyprian’s rival bishops and their communities,” Augustinianum 45 (2005), 6193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunn, James D. G. Unity and Diversity in the New Testament: An Inquiry into the Character of Earliest Christianity, 3rd ed. (London: SCM Press, 2006).Google Scholar
Dunning, Benjamin H. Aliens and Sojourners: Self as Other in Early Christianity (Divinations: Rereading Ancient Religion; Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eckhardt, Benedikt. “Private associations in Hellenistic and Roman cities: Common ground and dividing lines.” Pages 1336 in Private Associations and Jewish Communities in the Hellenistic and Roman Cities. Edited by Eckhardt, Benedikt (Journal for the Study of Judaism Suppl. 191; Leiden: Brill, 2019).Google Scholar
Ehrman, Bart D. Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).Google Scholar
Ehrman, Bart D. The Triumph of Christianity: How a Forbidden Religion Swept the World (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2018).Google Scholar
Flambard, Jean-Marc. “Éléments pour une approche financière de la mort dans les classes populaires du haut empire: Analyse du budget de quelques collèges funéraires de Rome et d’Italie.” Pages 209–44 in La mort, les morts et l’au-delà dans le monde romain: Actes du colloque de Caen, 20–22 novembre 1985. Edited by Hinard, François (Caen: Université de Caen, 1987).Google Scholar
Gez, Yonatan N., Droz, Yvan, Soares, Edio, and Rey, Jeanne. “From converts to itinerants: Religious butinage as dynamic identity,” Current Anthropology 58 (2017), 141–59.Google Scholar
Harland, Philip A. Associations, Synagogues, and Congregations: Claiming a Place in Ancient Mediterranean Society, 2nd rev. ed. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 2013).Google Scholar
Harnack, Adolf von. What Is Christianity? Translated by Saunders, Thomas Bailey (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1957). Orig. Das Wesen des Christentums: sechzehn Vorlesungen vor Studierenden aller Facultäten im Wintersemester 1899/1900 an der Universität Berlin (Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1900; repr. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005).Google Scholar
Hemer, Colin J. The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their Local Setting (JSNT Suppl. 11; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1986).Google Scholar
Hopkins, Keith. “Christian number and its implications,” Journal of Early Christian Studies 6 (1998), 185226.Google Scholar
Horrell, David G. Becoming Christian: Essays on 1 Peter and the Making of Christian Identity (LNTS 394; London: Bloomsbury, 2013).Google Scholar
Horrell, David G. “Idol-food, idolatry and ethics in Paul.” Pages 120–40 in Idolatry: False Worship in the Bible, Early Judaism and Christianity. Edited by Barton, Stephen C. (T&T Clark Theology; London: T&T Clark, 2007).Google Scholar
Horrell, David G. “The label Christianos: 1 Peter 4:16 and the formation of Christian identity,” Journal of Biblical Literature 126 (2007), 361–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurtado, Larry W. How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God? Historical Questions about Earliest Devotion to Jesus (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005).Google Scholar
Hurtado, Larry W. Why on Earth Did Anyone Become a Christian in the First Three Centuries? (The Père Marquette Lecture in Theology 2016; Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 2016).Google Scholar
Johnson, Gary J.De conspiratione delatorum: Pliny and the Christians revisited,” Latomus 47 (1988), 417–22.Google Scholar
Kelhoffer, James A. Persecution, Persuasion and Power: Readiness to Withstand Hardship as a Corroboration of Legitimacy in the New Testament (WUNT 270; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010).Google Scholar
King, Karen L.Which early Christianity?” Pages 6684 in The Oxford Handbook of Early Christian Studies. Edited by Harvey, Susan Ashbrook and Hunter, David G. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).Google Scholar
Kloppenborg, John S. Christ’s Associations: Connecting and Belonging in the Ancient City (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2019).Google Scholar
Knapp, Robert C. The Dawn of Christianity: People and Gods in a Time of Magic and Miracles (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017).Google Scholar
Knipfing, John R.The libelli of the Decian persecution,” Harvard Theological Review 16 (1923), 345–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kotrosits, Maia. Rethinking Early Christian Identity: Affect, Violence, and Belonging (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2015).Google Scholar
Kreider, Alan. The Patient Ferment of the Early Church: The Improbable Rise of Christianity in the Roman Empire (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2016).Google Scholar
Lane Fox, Robin. Pagans and Christians (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1986).Google Scholar
Licciardello, Pierluigi. “La Passio di Felice, Ireneo e Mustiola: Con edizione critica delle versioni BHL 4455–4456c,” Analecta Bollandiana 138 (2020), 585.Google Scholar
Lieu, Judith. Christian Identity in the Jewish and Graeco-Roman World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).Google Scholar
Mack, Burton L. Who Wrote the New Testament? The Making of the Christian Myth (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1995).Google Scholar
MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianizing the Roman Empire (a.d. 100–400) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984).Google Scholar
Matthews, Shelly. Perfect Martyr: The Stoning of Stephen and the Construction of Christian Identity (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).Google Scholar
Middleton, Paul. “Martyrdom and persecution in the New Testament.” Pages 5171 in The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Christian Martyrdom. Edited by Middleton, Paul (Hoboken: Wiley, 2020).Google Scholar
Middleton, Paul. The Violence of the Lamb: Martyrs as Agents of Divine Judgement in the Book of Revelation (LNTS 586; London: T&T Clark, 2018).Google Scholar
Millar, Fergus. “Paul of Samosata, Zenobia, and Aurelian: The church, local culture, and political allegiance in third-century Syria,” Journal of Roman Studies 61 (1971), 117.Google Scholar
Moore, R. Laurence. Religious Outsiders and the Making of Americans (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986).Google Scholar
Nock, Arthur Darby. Conversion: The Old and the New in Religion from Alexander the Great to Augustine of Hippo (London: Oxford University Press, 1933).Google Scholar
Nock, Arthur Darby. “Early Gentile Christianity and its Hellenistic background.” Pages 53156 in Essays on the Trinity and the Incarnation. Edited by Rawlinson, A. E. J. (London: Longmans, 1928). Repr. as pages 1–104 in Early Gentile Christianity and Its Hellenistic Background (Harper Torchbooks; New York: Harper and Row, 1964).Google Scholar
Papaconstantinou, Arietta (ed.) Conversion in Late Antiquity: Christianity, Islam, and Beyond. Papers from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Sawyer Seminar, University of Oxford, 2009–2010 (Farnham: Ashgate, 2015).Google Scholar
Perkins, Judith. The Suffering Self: Pain and Narrative Representation in the Early Christian Era (London: Routledge, 1995).Google Scholar
Praet, Danny. “Explaining the Christianization of the Roman empire,” Sacris erudiri 33 (1992), 5119.Google Scholar
Price, Simon. “The road to ‘conversion’: The life and work of A. D. Nock,” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 105 (2010), 317–39.Google Scholar
Rebillard, Éric. Christians and Their Many Identities in Late Antiquity, North Africa, 200–450 ce (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2012).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rebillard, Éric. “Popular hatred against Christians: The case of North Africa in the second and third centuries,” Archiv für Religiongeschichte 16 (2015), 283310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rebillard, Éric. Transformations of Religious Practices in Late Antiquity (VC Suppl. 1028; Farnham: Ashgate Variorum, 2013).Google Scholar
Rebillard, Éric. “‘Vivre avec les païens, mais non mourir avec eux’: Le problème de la commensalité des chrétiens et des non-chrétiens (Ier–Ve siècles).” Pages 151–76 in Les frontières du profane dans l’Antiquité tardive. Edited by Rebillard, Éric and Sotinel, Claire (CÉFR 428; Rome: École française de Rome, 2010).Google Scholar
Rives, James B.The decree of Decius and the religion of empire,” Journal of Roman Studies 89 (1999), 135–54.Google Scholar
Robinson, Thomas A. Who Were the First Christians? Dismantling the Urban Thesis (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017).Google Scholar
Roldanus, Johannes. “Le chrétien-étranger au monde dans les homélies bibliques de Jean Chrysostome,” Sacris erudiri 30 (1987–8), 231–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rousselle, Aline. “Le crime de christianisme.” Pages 265–72 in Ordre moral et délinquance de l’antiquité au XXe siècle: Actes du colloque de Dijon, 7 et 8 octobre 1993. Edited by Garnot, Benoît (Publications de l’Université de Bourgogne 78; Dijon: Éditions universitaires de Dijon, 1994).Google Scholar
Sage, Michael M.The persecution of Valerian and the peace of Gallienus,” Wiener Studien 96 (1983), 137–59.Google Scholar
Sanders, Jack T. Charisma, Converts, Competitors: Societal and Sociological Factors in the Success of Early Christianity (London: SCM Press, 2000).Google Scholar
Saxer, Victor. Vie liturgique et quotidienne à Carthage vers le milieu du IIIe siècle: Le témoignage de saint Cyprien et de ses contemporains d’Afrique (Studi di antichità cristiana 29; Vatican City: Pontificio Istituto di archeologia Cristiana, 1969).Google Scholar
Scheid, John. “Communauté et communauté: Réflexions sur quelques ambiguïtés d’après l’exemple des thiases de l’Égypte romaine.” Pages 6174 in Les communautés religieuses dans le monde gréco-romain: Essais de definition. Edited by Belayche, Nicole and Mimouni, Simon C. (BEHER 117; Turnhout: Brepols, 2003).Google Scholar
Schor, Adam M.Conversion by the numbers: Benefits and pitfalls of quantitative modelling in the study of early Christian growth,” Journal of Religious History 33 (2009), 472–98.Google Scholar
Schubert, Paul. “On the form and content of the certificates of pagan sacrifice,” Journal of Roman Studies 106 (2016), 172–98.Google Scholar
Schwartz, Seth. “Roman historians and the rise of Christianity: The school of Edward Gibbon.” Pages 145–60 in The Spread of Christianity in the First Four Centuries: Essays in Explanation. Edited by Harris, William V. (Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition 27; Leiden: Brill, 2005).Google Scholar
Selinger, Reinhard. The Mid-Third Century Persecutions of Decius and Valerian (Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 2002).Google Scholar
Shaw, Brent D.The myth of the Neronian persecution,” Journal of Roman Studies 105 (2015), 73100.Google Scholar
Sherwin-White, Adrian Nicholas. The Letters of Pliny: A Historical and Social Commentary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966).Google Scholar
Shin, Min Seok. The Great Persecution: A Historical Re-Examination (Studia Antiqua Australiensia 18; Turnhout: Brepols, 2018).Google Scholar
Siniscalco, Paolo. “L’editto di Milano: Origine e sviluppo di un dibattito.” Pages 543–56 in vol. 3 of Costantino I: Enciclopedia costantiniana sulla figura e l’immagine dell’imperatore del cosiddetto Editto di Milano, 313–2013 (Roma: Treccani, 2013).Google Scholar
Stark, Rodney. The Rise of Christianity: A Sociologist Reconsiders History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ste. Croix, Geoffrey E. M. de. Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, and Orthodoxy. Edited by Whitby, Michael and Streeter, Joseph (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ste. Croix, Geoffrey E. M. de. “Why were the early Christians persecuted?Past and Present 26.1 (1963), 638.Google Scholar
Ste. Croix, Geoffrey E. M. de. “Why were the early Christians persecuted? A rejoinder,” Past and Present 27.1 (1964), 2833.Google Scholar
Stowers, Stanley. “The concept of ‘community’ and the history of early Christianity,” Method and Theory in the Study of Religion 23 (2011), 238–56.Google Scholar
Straeten, Joseph van der. “Actes des martyrs d’Aurélien en Gaule,” Analecta Bollandiana 80 (1962), 116–41.Google Scholar
Straeten, Joseph van der. “Les Actes des martyrs d’Aurélien en Bourgogne: Étude littéraire,” Analecta Bollandiana 79 (1961), 115–44.Google Scholar
Tannous, Jack. The Making of the Medieval Middle East: Religion, Society, and Simple Believers (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2018).Google Scholar
Tran, Nicolas. Les membres des associations romaines: Le rang social des collegiati en Italie et en Gaules sous le haut-empire (CÉFR 367; Rome: École française de Rome, 2006).Google Scholar
Trebilco, Paul. Self-Designations and Group Identity in the New Testament (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).Google Scholar
Ullucci, Daniel C. The Christian Rejection of Animal Sacrifice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).Google Scholar
Versnel, Henk. Coping with the Gods: Wayward Readings in Greek Theology (Religions in the Graeco-Roman World 173; Leiden: Brill, 2011).Google Scholar
Vos, Craig Steven de. “Popular Graeco-Roman responses to Christianity.” Pages 869–89 in vol. 2 of The Early Christian World. Edited by Esler, Philip F. (London: Routledge, 2000).Google Scholar
Walsh, Joseph J.On Christian atheism,” Vigiliae Christianae 45 (1991), 255–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walsh, Robyn Faith. “The influence of the Romantic genius in early Christian studies,” Relegere: Studies in Religion and Reception 5 (2015), 3160.Google Scholar
Williams, Travis B. Persecution in 1 Peter: Differentiating and Contextualizing Early Christian Suffering (NovT Suppl. 145; Leiden: Brill, 2012).Google Scholar
Wilson, S. G. Leaving the Fold: Apostates and Defectors in Antiquity (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004).Google Scholar
Wisse, Frederik.Indirect textual evidence for the history of early Christianity and Gnosticism.” Pages 215–30 in For the Children, Perfect Instruction: Studies in Honor of Hans-Martin Schenke on the Occasion of the Berliner Arbeitskreis für koptisch-gnostische Schriften’s Thirtieth Year. Edited by Betghe, Hans-Gebhard, Emmel, Stephen, King, Karen L., and Schletterer, Imke (Nag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies 54; Leiden: Brill, 2002).Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×