5 - Papal Primacy and the Holy Roman Emperors in the Fourth to Twelfth Centuries

Summary

Pope Gregory VII and his personal views as expressed in the Dictatus papae and his references to the forged “Donation of Constantine” opened the way for the debated papal monarchy of the twelfth century. The gradual reversal of the ancient Gelasian doctrine of the relationship between spiritual and worldly powers was achieved and furthered by division within the Salian dynasty and the general social evolution and feudalization of Western society. It was not a revolution. Against the background of the council of Sutri of 1046, when Emperor Henry III arranged for the settlement of disputed papal elections, this chapter focuses on the internal changes – especially since the time of Leo IX (d.1054) – leading to a reformed papacy prior to Gregory VII (including monastic and clerical renewal as well as eventually organizational changes within the Church, such as, in no particular order: the College of Cardinals, the use of legates, the use of privileges, revival of ancient canon law, a camera along the pattern of Cluny, oaths of obedience, etc.). These changes enabled the papacy to challenge in particular the claims to sacrality first of all by the Salian monarchy but eventually of all monarchies.