Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-s2hrs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-11T13:21:20.407Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 17 - COVID-19: Conspiracies and Collateral Damage vs Constructive Critique

from Science and Race

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 November 2022

By
Stephan Lewandowsky ,
Konstantinos Armaos ,
Hendrik Bruns ,
Philipp Schmid ,
Dawn Liu Holford ,
Ulrike Hahn ,
Ahmed Al-Rawi ,
Sunita Sah ,
John Cook  and
Marie Juanchich
...Show all authors
Edited by
Julien Musolino ,
Joseph Sommer  and
Pernille Hemmer
Julien Musolino
Affiliation:
Rutgers University, New Jersey
Joseph Sommer
Affiliation:
Rutgers University, New Jersey
Pernille Hemmer
Affiliation:
Rutgers University, New Jersey
Get access

Summary

The COVID-19 pandemic that turned the world upside down in early 2020 also gave rise to an “infodemic” of misinformation and conspiracy theories. This chapter tackles three issues. We first explore the political and ideological underpinnings of the COVID-19 infodemic and its organizational, rhetorical, and ideological links to climate denial. We then highlight the legitimacy of political grievances in light of government pandemic policies. We conclude by proposing a sketch of the boundary between politically-motivated denial of science on the one hand and legitimate political arguments on the other.

Keywords

COVID-19misinformationconspiracy theoriesclimate changescience denialpublic healthscientific evidencevaccine hesitancy
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cognitive Science of Belief
A Multidisciplinary Approach
 , pp. 374 - 397
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alwan, N. A., Burgess, R. A., Ashworth, S. et al. (2020) Scientific consensus on the COVID-19 pandemic: we need to act now. The Lancet, 396(10260), e71–e72. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32153-XCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
AVAAZ (2020) Facebook’s algorithm: a major threat to public health. Retrieved from https://secure.avaaz.org/campaign/en/facebook_threat_health/Google Scholar
Balliet, D. (2010) Communication and cooperation in social dilemmas: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 54(1), 39–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002709352443CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banas, J. A. & Miller, G. (2013) Inducing resistance to conspiracy theory propaganda: testing inoculation and metainoculation strategies. Human Communication Research, 39(2), 184–207. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12000Google Scholar
Barnett, M. D., Hale, T. M., & Sligar, K. B. (2017) Masculinity, femininity, sexual dysfunctional beliefs, and rape myth acceptance among heterosexual college men and women. Sexuality & Culture, 21(3), 741–753. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-017-9420-3Google Scholar
Bénabou, R. & Tirole, J. (2016) Mindful economics: the production, consumption, and value of beliefs. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 30(3), 141–164. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.30.3.141CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berger, E. & Reupert, A. (2020) The COVID-19 pandemic in Australia: lessons learnt. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12(5), 494–496. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000722CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowles, S. (2008) Policies designed for self-interested citizens may undermine “the moral sentiments”: evidence from economic experiments. Science, 320(5883), 1605–1609. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1152110CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brubaker, R. (2020) Paradoxes of populism during the pandemic. Thesis Eleven, 164(1) https://doi.org/10.1177/0725513620970804Google Scholar
Brulle, R. J. (2013) Institutionalizing delay: foundation funding and the creation of US climate change counter-movement organizations. Climatic Change, 122(4), 681–694. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-013-1018-7Google Scholar
Bruns, A., Harrington, S., & Hurcombe, E. (2020) “Corona? 5G? or both?”: the dynamics of COVID-19/5G conspiracy theories on Facebook. Media International Australia, 177(1), 12–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/1329878x20946113Google Scholar
Budescu, D. V., Por, H.-H., & Broomell, S. B. (2012) Effective communication of uncertainty in the IPCC reports. Climatic Change, 113(2), 181–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0330-3Google Scholar
Bukuluki, P., Mwenyango, H., Katongole, S. P., Sidhva, D., & Palattiyil, G. (2020) The socio-economic and psychosocial impact of Covid-19 pandemic on urban refugees in Uganda. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2020.100045Google Scholar
Campbell, T. H. & Kay, A. C. (2014) Solution aversion: on the relation between ideology and motivated disbelief. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107(5), 809–824. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037963CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheng, Y., Ma, N., Witt, C. et al. (2021) Face masks effectively limit the probability of SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Science, 372(6549), 1439–1443. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abg6296Google Scholar
Chu, D. K., Akl, E. A., Duda, S. et al. (2020) Physical distancing, face masks, and eye protection to prevent person-to-person transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet, 395(10242), 1973–1987. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31142-9Google Scholar
Coates, M. (2020) Covid-19 and the rise of racism. BMJ, 369, m1384. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m1384Google Scholar
Cook, J. (2020a) Deconstructing climate science denial. In Holmes, D. & Richardson, L. M. (Eds.). Research handbook on communicating climate change. Edward Elgar Publishing.Google Scholar
Cook, J. (2020b) Using humor and games to counter science misinformation. Skeptical Inquirer, 44(3), 38–41.Google Scholar
Cook, J., & Lewandowsky, S. (2016) Rational irrationality: modeling climate change belief polarization using Bayesian networks. Topics in Cognitive Science, 8(1), 160–179. https://doi.org/10.1111/tops.12186Google Scholar
Cook, J., Lewandowsky, S., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2017) Neutralizing misinformation through inoculation: exposing misleading argumentation techniques reduces their influence. PLoS ONE, 12(5), e0175799. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0175799Google Scholar
Cook, J., van der Linden, S., Maibach, E., & Lewandowsky, S. (2018) The consensus handbook. www.climatechangecommunication.org/all/consensus-handbook/ https://doi.org/10.13021/G8MM6PGoogle Scholar
Crockett, M. J., Kurth-Nelson, Z., Siegel, J. Z., Dayan, P., & Dolan, R. J. (2014) Harm to others outweighs harm to self in moral decision making. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(48), 17320–17325. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1408988111CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daly, M. & Robinson, E. (2021) Willingness to Vaccinate against COVID-19 in the U.S.: Representative Longitudinal Evidence from April to October 2020. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 60(6), 766–773. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2021.01.008Google Scholar
Danielson, R. W., Sinatra, G. M., & Kendeou, P. (2016) Augmenting the refutation text effect with analogies and graphics. Discourse Processes, 53(5–6), 392–414. https://doi.org/10.1080/0163853x.2016.1166334CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawes, R. M. (1980). Social dilemmas. Annual Review of Psychology, 31, 169–193. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.31.020180.001125Google Scholar
DeVerna, M. R., Pierri, F., Truong, B. et al. (2021) CoVaxxy: a global collection of English-language Twitter posts about COVID-19 vaccines. arXiv.org preprint. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2101.07694CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickson, E. J. (2020) Anti-vax doctor promotes conspiracy theory that death certificates falsely cite COVID-19. www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-features/anti-vax-doctor-covid-19-death-certificates-984407/Google Scholar
Diederich, J. & Goeschl, T. (2014) Willingness to pay for voluntary climate action and its determinants: field-experimental evidence. Environmental and Resource Economics, 57, 405–429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10640-013-9686-3Google Scholar
Diethelm, P. & McKee, M. (2009) Denialism: what is it and how should scientists respond? European Journal of Public Health, 19(1), 2–4. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckn139CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunbar, A. & Jones, N. E. (2021) Race, police, and the pandemic: considering the role of race in public health policing. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 44(5), 773–782. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2020.1851381CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Enders, A. M., Uscinski, J. E., Klofstad, C., & Stoler, J. (2020) The different forms of COVID-19 misinformation and their consequences. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 1(8). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-48Google Scholar
Evanega, S., Lynas, M., Adams, J., Smolenyak, K., & Insights, C. G. (2020) Coronavirus misinformation: quantifying sources and themes in the COVID-19 “infodemic” (Tech. Rep.). Cornell University.Google Scholar
Every-Palmer, S., Jenkins, M., Gendall, P. et al. (2020). Psychological distress, anxiety, family violence, suicidality, and wellbeing in New Zealand during the COVID-19 lockdown: a cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE, 15(11), e0241658. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241658Google Scholar
Farrell, J. (2015) Network structure and influence of the climate change counter-movement. Nature Climate Change, 6(4), 370–374. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2875CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleerackers, A., Riedlinger, M., Moorhead, L., Ahmed, R., & Alperin, J. P. (2021) Communicating scientific uncertainty in an age of COVID-19: an investigation into the use of preprints by digital media outlets. Health Communication, 37(6), 726–738. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2020.1864892Google Scholar
Golman, R., Hagmann, D., & Loewenstein, G. (2017) Information avoidance. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(1), 96–135. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20151245Google Scholar
Greenaway, C., Hargreaves, S., Barkati, S., Coyle, C. M., Gobbi, F., Veizis, A., & Douglas, P. (2020) COVID-19: Exposing and addressing health disparities among ethnic minorities and migrants. Journal of Travel Medicine, 27(7). https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taaa113Google Scholar
Hahn, U. (2020) Argument quality in real world argumentation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 24(5), 363–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2020.01.004Google Scholar
Hahn, U. & Harris, A. J. (2014) What does it mean to be biased: motivated reasoning and rationality. In Ross, B. H. (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation, Vol. 61 (pp. 41–102). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800283-4.00002-2Google Scholar
Hamilton, L. C., Hartter, J., & Saito, K. (2015) Trust in scientists on climate change and vaccines. SAGE Open, 5(3), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244015602752CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hansson, S. O. (2017) Science denial as a form of pseudoscience. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 63, 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2017.05.002Google Scholar
Hardin, G. (1968). The tragedy of the commons. Science, 162(3859), 1243–1248. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.162.3859.1243CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haug, N., Geyrhofer, L., Londei, A. et al. (2020) Ranking the effectiveness of worldwide COVID-19 government interventions. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(12), 1303–1312. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-01009-0Google Scholar
Havey, N. F. (2020) Partisan public health: how does political ideology influence support for COVID-19 related misinformation? Journal of Computational Social Science, 3(2), 319–342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42001-020-00089-2Google Scholar
Hertwig, R. & Engel, C. (2016) Homo ignorans. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11(3), 359–372. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691616635594Google Scholar
Hornsey, M. J., Harris, E., & Fielding, K. S. (2018) The psychological roots of anti-vaccination attitudes: a 24-nation investigation. Health Psychology, 37(4), 307–315. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000586Google Scholar
Howard, J., Huang, A., Li, Z. et al. (2021) An evidence review of face masks against COVID-19. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(4), e2014564118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2014564118Google Scholar
Ivanov, B., Parker, K. A., & Dillingham, L. (2020) Inoculation theory as a strategic tool. In The handbook of applied communication research (pp. 11–28). Wiley Online Library.Google Scholar
Jamison, A. M., Quinn, S. C., & Freimuth, V. S. (2019) “You don’t trust a government vaccine”: narratives of institutional trust and influenza vaccination among African American and white adults. Social Science & Medicine, 221, 87–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.12.020CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jern, A., Chang, K.-M. K., & Kemp, A. C. (2014) Belief polarization is not always irrational. Psychological Review, 121(2), 206–224. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035941Google Scholar
Johnson, T., Dawes, C., Fowler, J., & Smirnov, O. (2020) Slowing COVID-19 transmission as a social dilemma: lessons for government officials from interdisciplinary research on cooperation. Journal of Behavioral Public Administration, 3(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.30636/jbpa.31.150Google Scholar
Jolley, D. & Paterson, J. L. (2020) Pylons ablaze: examining the role of 5G COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs and support for violence. British Journal of Social Psychology, 59(3), 628–640. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12394Google Scholar
Juanchich, M., Sirota, M., Jolles, D., & Whiley, L. A. (2021) Are COVID-19 conspiracies a threat to public health? Psychological characteristics and health protective behaviours of believers. European Journal of Social Psychology, 51(6), 969–989. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2796Google Scholar
Koessler, A.-K., Ortiz-Riomalo, J., Janke, M., & Engel, S. (2020) Structuring communication effectively for environmental cooperation. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3533910Google Scholar
Kramer, A. & Kramer, K. Z. (2020) The potential impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on occupational status, work from home, and occupational mobility. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 119, 103442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2020.103442Google Scholar
Lewandowsky, S. (2021a) Climate change, disinformation, and how to combat it. Annual Review of Public Health, 42(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-090419-102409Google Scholar
Lewandowsky, S. (2021b) Conspiracist cognition: chaos, convenience, and cause for concern. Journal for Cultural Research, 25(1), 12–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/14797585.2021.1886423Google Scholar
Lewandowsky, S., Ballard, T., Oberauer, K., & Benestad, R. (2016) A blind expert test of contrarian claims about climate data. Global Environmental Change, 39, 91–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.04.013Google Scholar
Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Ecker, U. et al. (2020) The debunking handbook 2020. https://sks.to/db2020Google Scholar
Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., & Lloyd, E. (2016) The “Alice in Wonderland” mechanics of the rejection of (climate) science: simulating coherence by conspiracism. Synthese, 195(1), 175–196. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-016-1198-6Google Scholar
Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Oberauer, K., Brophy, S., Lloyd, E. A., & Marriott, M. (2015) Recurrent fury: conspiratorial discourse in the blogosphere triggered by research on the role of conspiracist ideation in climate denial. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 3(1), 142–178. https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.v3i1.443Google Scholar
Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., & Cook, J. (2017) Beyond misinformation: Understanding and coping with the post-truth era. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6(4), 353–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.07.008Google Scholar
Lewandowsky, S., Gignac, G. E., & Oberauer, K. (2013) The role of conspiracist ideation and worldviews in predicting rejection of science. PLoS ONE, 8(10), e75637. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0075637Google Scholar
Lewandowsky, S., Mann, M. E., Brown, N. J. L., & Friedman, H. (2016) Science and the public: debate, denial, and skepticism. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 4(2), 537–553. https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.v4i2.604CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewandowsky, S. & Oberauer, K. (2016) Motivated rejection of science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25(4), 217–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721416654436Google Scholar
Lewandowsky, S., Oberauer, K., & Gignac, G. E. (2013) NASA faked the moon landing—therefore (climate) science is a hoax: an anatomy of the motivated rejection of science. Psychological Science, 24(5), 622–633. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612457686Google Scholar
Lewandowsky, S. & van der Linden, S. (2021) Countering misinformation and fake news through inoculation and prebunking. European Review of Social Psychology, 32(2) 348–384. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2021.1876983Google Scholar
Lewandowsky, S., Woike, J. K., & Oberauer, K. (2020) Genesis or evolution of gender differences? Worldview-based dilemmas in the processing of scientific information. Journal of Cognition, 3(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.5334/joc.99Google Scholar
Loomba, S., de Figueiredo, A., Piatek, S. J., de Graaf, K., & Larson, H. J. (2021) Measuring the impact of COVID-19 vaccine misinformation on vaccination intent in the UK and USA. Nature Human Behaviour, 5(3), 337–348. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01056-1Google Scholar
Lowes, S. R. & Montero, E. (2018) The legacy of colonial medicine in Central Africa. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3138813Google Scholar
Mamié, R., Ribeiro, M. H., & West, R. (2021). Are anti-feminist communities gateways to the far right? Evidence from Reddit and YouTube. 13th ACM Web Science Conference 2021, Association for Computing Machinery, pp. 139–147. https://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3447535.3462504Google Scholar
Mastrandrea, M. D., Mach, K. J., Plattner, G.-K. et al. (2011) The ipcc ar5 guidance note on consistent treatment of uncertainties: a common approach across the working groups. Climatic Change, 108(4), 675–691. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0178-6Google Scholar
McKee, M. & Diethelm, P. (2010) How the growth of denialism undermines public health. BMJ, 341(7786), 1309–1311. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.c6950Google Scholar
McKee, M. & Stuckler, D. (2020) Scientific divisions on COVID-19: not what they might seem. BMJ, 371(8265), m4024. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m4024Google Scholar
Milinski, M., Semmann, D., & Krambeck, H. J. (2002). Reputation helps solve the “tragedy of the commons.” Nature, 415(6870), 424–426. https://doi.org/10.1038/415424aGoogle Scholar
Momplaisir, F., Haynes, N., Nkwihoreze, H., Nelson, M., Werner, R. M., & Jemmott, J. (2021) Understanding drivers of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among Blacks. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 73(10), 1784–1789. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciab102Google Scholar
Oppenheimer, D. M. (2006) Consequences of erudite vernacular utilized irrespective of necessity: problems with using long words needlessly. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20(2), 139–156. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1178CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oreskes, N. & Conway, E. M. (2010) Merchants of doubt. Bloomsbury Publishing.Google Scholar
Ostrom, E. (1993) Governing the commons: the evolutions of institutions for collective action. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
O’Sullivan, D., Rahamathulla, M., & Pawar, M. (2020) The impact and implications of COVID-19: an Australian perspective. The International Journal of Community and Social Development, 2(2), 134–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/2516602620937922Google Scholar
Patel, S. S., Kalma, J., & Bluman, E. M. (2020) Understanding COVID-19 vaccines and their development. Journal of Bone, 102(20), 1759–1769. https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.20.01191Google Scholar
Pei, X. & Mehta, D. (2020) #Coronavirus or #Chinese virus?! Understanding the negative sentiment reflected in Tweets with racist hashtags across the development of covid-19. arXiv.org preprint. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2005.08224Google Scholar
Perry, H. B. (2020) Is access enough? Interrogating the influence of money and power in shaping information. Open Information Science, 4(1), 29–38. https://doi.org/10.1515/opis-2020-0003Google Scholar
Petersen, E., Koopmans, M., Go, U. et al. (2020). Comparing SARS-CoV-2 with SARS-CoV and influenza pandemics. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 20(9), e238–e244. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1473-3099(20)30484-9Google Scholar
Readfearn, G. (2016) Revealed: most popular climate story on social media told half a million people the science was a hoax. www.desmogblog.com/2016/11/29/revealed-most-popular-climate-story-social-media-told-half-million-people-science-was-hoaxGoogle Scholar
Reardon, S. (2011) Decrying CIA vaccination sham, Health Workers Brace for Backlash. Science, 333(6041), 395–395. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.333.6041.395Google Scholar
Risbey, J. S., Lewandowsky, S., Hunter, J. R., & Monselesan, D. P. (2015) Betting strategies on fluctuations in the transient response of greenhouse warming. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (A), 373(2055), 20140463. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2014.0463Google Scholar
Robinson, L. A., Sullivan, R., & Shogren, J. F. (2020) Do the benefits of COVID-19 policies exceed the costs? exploring uncertainties in the age–VSL relationship. Risk Analysis, 41(5), 761–770. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.13561Google Scholar
Roozenbeek, J., Schneider, C. R., Dryhurst, S. et al. (2020) Susceptibility to misinformation about COVID-19 around the world. Royal Society Open Science, 7(10), 201199. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.201199Google Scholar
Rutjens, B. T., van der Linden, S., & van der Lee, R. (2021) Science skepticism in times of COVID-19. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 24(2), 276–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430220981415Google Scholar
Sakalh-Ugurlu, N. & Glick, P. (2003) Ambivalent sexism and attitudes toward women who engage in premarital sex in Turkey. The Journal of Sex Research, 40(3), 296–302. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490309552194Google Scholar
Schimmenti, A., Billieux, J., & Starcevic, V. (2020) The four horsemen of fear: an integrated model of understanding fear experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 17(2), 41–45. https://doi.org/10.36131/CN20200202.Google Scholar
Schmid, P. & Betsch, C. (2019) Effective strategies for rebutting science denialism in public discussions. Nature Human Behavior, 3(9), 931–939. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-019-0632-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seifert, C. M. (2002) The continued influence of misinformation in memory: what makes a correction effective? In Ross, B. H. (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: advances in research and theory, Vol. 41 (pp. 265–292). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(02)80009-3Google Scholar
Serafini, G., Parmigiani, B., Amerio, A., Aguglia, A., Sher, L., & Amore, M. (2020) The psychological impact of COVID-19 on the mental health in the general population. QJM: An International Journal of Medicine, 113(8), 531–537. https://doi.org/10.1093/qjmed/hcaa201CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smirnov, O. (2019) Collective risk social dilemma and the consequences of the US withdrawal from international climate negotiations. Journal of Theoretical Politics, 31(4), 660–676. https://doi.org/10.1177/0951629819875511Google Scholar
Sutton, R. M. & Douglas, K. M. (2020) Agreeing to disagree: reports of the popularity of Covid-19 conspiracy theories are greatly exaggerated. Psychological Medicine, 52(4), 791–793. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291720002780Google Scholar
The Lancet (2020) The plight of essential workers during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Lancet, 395(10237), 1587. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31200-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomson, S. & Ip, E. C. (2020) COVID-19 emergency measures and the impending authoritarian pandemic. Journal of Law and the Biosciences, 7(1), 1–33. https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsaa064Google Scholar
Uscinski, J. E., Douglas, K., & Lewandowsky, S. (2017) Climate change conspiracy theories. In Oxford research encyclopedia of climate science. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.328Google Scholar
Uscinski, J. E., Enders, A. M., Klofstad, C. et al. (2020) Why do people believe COVID-19 conspiracy theories? Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 1(3). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-015Google Scholar
van Barneveld, K., Quinlan, M., Kriesler, P. et al. (2020) The COVID-19 pandemic: lessons on building more equal and sustainable societies. The Economic and Labour Relations Review, 31(2), 133–157. https://doi.org/10.1177/1035304620927107Google Scholar
van Basshuysen, P., & White, L. (2021) Bad data and flawed models? Fact-checking Winsberg et al.’s case against lockdowns. www.lse.ac.uk/philosophy/blog/2021/01/26/bad-data-and-flawed-models/Google Scholar
van der Linden, S. (2021) Some recommendations for doing high-impact research in social psychological science. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 24(1), 37–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12463Google Scholar
van der Linden, S., Leiserowitz, A., Rosenthal, S., & Maibach, E. (2017) Inoculating the public against misinformation about climate change. Global Challenges, 1(2), 1600008. https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.201600008Google Scholar
Vorms, M. & Hahn, U. (2019) In the space of reasonable doubt. Synthese, 198(15), 3609–3633. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-019-02488-zGoogle Scholar
Vraga, E. K. & Bode, L. (2020) Defining misinformation and understanding its bounded nature: using expertise and evidence for describing misinformation. Political Communication, 37(1), 136–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2020.1716500Google Scholar
Ward, B. (2020) Organisers of anti-lockdown declaration have track record of promoting denial of health and environmental risks. www.lse.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/news/organisers-of-anti-lockdown-declaration-have-track-record-of-promoting-denial-of-health-and-environmental-risks/Google Scholar
Wenham, C., Smith, J., & Morgan, R. (2020) COVID-19: the gendered impacts of the outbreak. The Lancet, 395(10227), 846–848. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30526-2Google Scholar
Wondreys, J. & Mudde, C. (2020) Victims of the pandemic? European far-right parties and COVID-19. Nationalities Papers, 50(1), 86–103. https://doi.org/10.1017/nps.2020.93Google Scholar
Xiong, J., Lipsitz, O., Nasri, F. et al. (2020) Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on mental health in the general population: a systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 277, 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.08.001Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×