Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-7cvxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T05:11:42.040Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

8 - The Quest for Racial Justice

An Overview of Research on Racism and Critical Action for Youth of Color

from Part III - Societal Contexts

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 May 2023

Erin B. Godfrey
Affiliation:
New York University
Luke J. Rapa
Affiliation:
Clemson University, South Carolina
Get access

Summary

Critical action – action to dismantle oppression and seek justice – is often motivated by and in response to being subjected to racism. Indeed, critical action can be an adaptive coping response to racism, such that critical action might reduce the negative impacts of racism on the individual. Further, the goal of critical action, at its core, is to eliminate racism and its coconspiring forms of oppression, eradicating the root source of harm to marginalized individuals and communities. In this chapter, we provide an overview of current research that has examined how racism is related to critical action for racially marginalized youth. We consider racism as a system of oppression that manifests through culture, institutions, and individuals, along with stress responses to racism. We then provide recommendations for future research and practice to extend our understanding of if, when, and how experiencing racism motivates or detracts from youth critical action.

Type
Chapter
Information
Developing Critical Consciousness in Youth
Contexts and Settings
, pp. 232 - 265
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aldana, A., Bañales, J., & Richards-Schuster, K. (2019). Youth anti-racist engagement: Conceptualization, development, and validation of an anti-racism action scale. Adolescent Research Review, 4(4), 369381. https://doi.org/gb82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anyiwo, N., Bañales, J., Rowley, S. J., Watkins, D. C., & Richards‐Schuster, K. (2018). Sociocultural influences on the sociopolitical development of African American youth. Child Development Perspectives, 12(3), 165170. https://doi.org/f5rm.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anyiwo, N., Palmer, G. J., Garret, J. M., Starck, J. G., & Hope, E. C. (2020). Racial and political resistance: An examination of the sociopolitical action of racially marginalized youth. Current Opinion in Psychology, 35(2020), 8691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.03.005.Google Scholar
Atkin, A. L., Yoo, H. C., White, R. M. B., Tran, A. G. T. T., & Jackson, K. F. (2021). Validation of the Multiracial Youth Socialization (MY-Soc) Scale among racially diverse multiracial emerging adults. Journal of Family Psychology, 36(1), 1322. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000879.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ballard, P. J. (2015). Longitudinal links between discrimination and civic development among Latino and Asian adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 26(4), 723737. https://doi.org/f9fcj2.Google Scholar
Bañales, J., Lozada, F. T., Channey, J., & Jagers, R. J. (2021). Relating through oppression: Longitudinal relations between parental racial socialization, school racial climate, oppressed minority ideology, and empathy in Black male adolescents’ prosocial development. American Journal of Community Psychology, 74, 63–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12496.Google Scholar
Benner, A. D., Wang, Y., Shen, Y. et al. (2018). Racial/ethnic discrimination and well-being during adolescence: A meta-analytic review. American Psychologist, 73(7), 855883. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000204.supp.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonilla-Silva, E. (1997). Rethinking racism: Toward a structural interpretation. American Sociological Review, 62, 465480. http://doi.org/10.2307/2657316.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brody, G. H., Lei, M., Chae, D. H. et al. (2014). Perceived discrimination among African American adolescents and allostatic load: A longitudinal analysis with buffering effects. Child Development, 85(3), 9891002. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryant-Davis, T., & Moore-Lobban, S. J. (2020). Black minds matter: Applying liberation psychology to Black Americans. In Comas-Díaz, L. & Torres Rivera, E. (Eds.), Liberation psychology: Theory, method, practice, and social justice (pp. 189206). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000198-011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burson, E., & Godfrey, E. B. (2020). Intraminority solidarity: The role of critical consciousness. European Journal of Social Psychology, 50(6), 13621377. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2679.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler-Barnes, S. T., & Inniss-Thompson, M. N. (2020). “My teacher doesn’t like me”: Perceptions of teacher discrimination and school discipline among African-American and Caribbean Black adolescent girls. Education Sciences, 10, 4457. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10020044.Google Scholar
Cabrera, N. L., Meza, E. L., Romero, A. J., & Rodríguez, R. C. (2013). “If there is no struggle, there is no progress”: Transformative youth activism and the school of ethnic studies. Urban Review, 45, 722. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-012-0220-7.Google Scholar
Carasik, L. (2016). N Dakota Pipeline Protest Is a Harbinger of Many More. (November 21). ALJAZEERA. www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/11/dakota-pipeline-protest-harbinger-161120150300919.html.Google Scholar
Cheeks, B. L., Chavous, T. M., & Settles, I. H. (2020). A daily examination of African American adolescents’ racial discrimination, parental racial socialization, and psychological affect. Child Development, 29, 57–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13416.Google Scholar
Christens, B. D., & Dolan, T. (2011). Interweaving youth development, community development, and social change through youth organizing. Youth & Society, 43(2), 528548. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118x10383647.Google Scholar
Christophe, N. K., Martin Romero, M. Y., Hope, E. C., & Stein, G. L. (2021). Critical civic engagement in Black college students: Interplay between discrimination, centrality, and preparation for bias. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 92(2), 144153. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000600.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, S., & Seider, S. (2019). The role of curiosity in the sociopolitical development of Black and Latinx adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 30(1), 189202. http://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12511.Google Scholar
Cole, E. R. (2008). Coalitions as a model for intersectionality: From practice to theory. Sex Roles, 59(5–6), 443453. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9419-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collingwood, L., Lajevardi, N., & Oskooii, K. A. (2018). A change of heart? Why individual-level public opinion shifted against Trump’s “Muslim Ban.Political Behavior, 40(4), 10351072. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-017-9439-z.Google Scholar
Conner, J. O. (2015). Pawns or power players: The grounds on which adults dismiss or defend youth organizers in the USA. Journal of Youth Studies, 19(3), 403420. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2015.1083958.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooc, N., & Kim, G. M. (2021). The roles of racial discrimination and English in civic outcomes for Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 7(3), 483494. http://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000443.Google Scholar
Corning, A. F., & Myers, D. J. (2002). Individual orientation toward engagement in social action. Political Psychology, 23, 703729. https://doi.org/cqrz2s.Google Scholar
Cuellar, A. E., & Markowitz, S. (2015). School suspension and the school-to-prison pipeline. International Review of Law and Economics, 43, 98106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.irle.2015.06.001.Google Scholar
Diemer, M. A., Hsieh, C.-A., & Pan, T. (2008). School and parental influences on sociopolitical development among poor adolescents of color. The Counseling Psychologist, 37(2), 317344. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000008315971.Google Scholar
Diemer, M. A., Pinedo, A., Bañales, J. et al. (2020). (Re)centering action in critical consciousness. Child Development Perspectives, 26, 176182. https://doi.org/gh7kq6.Google Scholar
Diemer, M. A., Rapa, L. J., Park, C. J., & Perry, J. C. (2017). Development and validation of the Critical Consciousness Scale. Youth & Society, 49(4), 461483. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118x14538289.Google Scholar
Diemer, M. A., Rapa., L., Voight, A., & McWhirter, E. (2016). Critical consciousness: A developmental approach to addressing marginalization and oppression. Child Development Perspectives, 10(4), 216221. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12446.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Driscoll, M. W., Reynolds, J. R., & Todman, L. C. (2015). Dimensions of race-related stress and African American life satisfaction: A test of the protective role of collective efficacy. Journal of Black Psychology, 41(5), 462486.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
English, D., Lambert, S. F., Tynes, B. M. et al. (2020). Daily multidimensional racial discrimination among Black US American adolescents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 66, 101068. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2019.101068.Google Scholar
Fanon, F. (1968). The wretched of the earth. Grove Press.Google Scholar
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Continuum.Google Scholar
Fulbright-Anderson, K., Lawrence, K., Sutton, S., Susi, G., & Kubisch, A. (2005). Structural Racism and Youth Development: Issues, Challenges, and Implications. The Aspen Institute. www.aspeninstitute.org/publications/structural-racism-youth-development-issues-challenges-implications/.Google Scholar
García Coll, C., Lamberty, G., Jenkins, R. et al. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. Child Development, 67, 18911914. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01834.x.Google Scholar
Gibson, S. M., Bouldin, B. M., Stokes, M. N., Lozada, F. T., & Hope, E. C. (2021). Cultural racism and depression in Black adolescents: Examining racial socialization and racial identity as moderators. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 32(1), 4148. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12698.Google Scholar
Ginwright, S. (2010). Black youth rising: Activism and healing in urban American. Teacher’s College Press.Google Scholar
Goings, R. B., & Ford, D. Y. (2018). Investigating the intersection of poverty and race in gifted education journals: A 15-year analysis. Gifted Child Quarterly, 62, 2526. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986217737618.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gopalan, M., & Nelson, A. A. (2019). Understanding the racial discipline gap in schools. AERA Open, 5(2), 126. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858419844613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gover, A. R., Harper, S. B., & Langton, L. (2020). Anti-Asian hate crime during the COVID-19 pandemic: Exploring the reproduction of inequality. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45(4), 647667. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09545-1.Google Scholar
Harrell, S. P. (2000). A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-related stress: implications for the well-being of people of color. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(1), 4257. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087722.Google Scholar
Henderson, D. X., Walker, L., Barnes, R. R. et al. (2019). A framework for race‐related trauma in the public education system and implications on health for Black youth. Journal of School Health, 89(11), 926933. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12832.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hope, E. C., Brinkman, M., Hoggard, L. S. et al. (2021). Black adolescents’ anticipatory stress responses to multilevel racism: The role of racial identity. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 91(4), 487498. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000547.Google Scholar
Hope, E. C., Cryer-Coupet, Q. R., & Stokes, M. N. (2020). Race-related stress, racial identity, and activism among young Black men: A person-centered approach. Developmental Psychology, 56(8), 14841495. https://doi.org/gb87.Google Scholar
Hope, E. C., Gugwor, R., Riddick, K. N., & Pender, K. N. (2019). Engaged against the machine: Institutional and cultural racial discrimination and racial identity as predictors of activism orientation among Black youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 63(1–2), 6172. https://doi.org/gftk4q.Google Scholar
Hope, E. C., & Jagers, R. J. (2014). The role of sociopolitical attitudes and civic education in the civic engagement of Black youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 24(3), 460470. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12117.Google Scholar
Hope, E., Keels, M., & Durkee, M. (2016). Participation in Black Lives Matter and deferred action for childhood arrivals: Modern activism among Black and Latino college students. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 9, 203215. https://doi.org/f84zd5.Google Scholar
Hope, E. C., Pender, K. N., & Riddick, K. N. (2019). Development and validation of the Black Community Activism Orientation Scale. Journal of Black Psychology, 45(3), 185214. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798419865416.Google Scholar
Hope, E. C., Skoog, A. B., & Jagers, R. J. (2015). “It’ll never be the white kids, it’ll always be us”: Black high school students’ evolving critical analysis of racial discrimination and inequity in schools. Journal of Adolescent Research, 30(1), 83112. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558414550688.Google Scholar
Hope, E. C., Smith, C. D., Cryer-Coupet, Q. R., & Briggs, A. S. (2020). Relations between racial stress and critical consciousness for Black adolescents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 70, 101184. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101184.Google Scholar
Hope, E. C., & Spencer, M. B. (2017). Civic engagement as an adaptive coping response to conditions of inequality: An application of Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST). In Cabrera, N., & Leyendecker, B. (Eds.), Handbook on positive development of minority children and youth (pp. 421435). Springer. https://doi.org/gb88ur.Google Scholar
Hope, E. C., Velez, G., Offidani-Bertrand, C., Keels, M., & Durkee, M. I. (2018). Political activism and mental health among Black and Latinx college students. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 24(1), 2639. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000144.Google Scholar
Huber, L. P., Villanueva, B. P., Guarneros, N., Vélez, V. N., & Solórzano, D. G. (2014). DACAmented in California: The impact of the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals program on Latina/os. CSRC Research Report. No. 18. UCLA Chicano Studies Research Center. www.chicano.ucla.edu/publications/report-brief/dacamented-california.Google Scholar
Jones, J. M. (1997). Prejudice and racism (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill Companies.Google Scholar
Jun, J., Kim, J. K., & Woo, B. (2021). Fight the virus and fight the bias: Asian Americans’ engagement in activism to combat anti-Asian COVID-19 racism. Race and Justice, Advanced Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/21533687211054165.Google Scholar
Keels, M., Durkee, M., & Hope, E. C. (2017). The psychological and academic costs of school-based racial and ethnic microaggressions. American Educational Research Journal, 54(6), 13161344. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831217722120.Google Scholar
Kishi, R., & Jones, S. (2020). Demonstrations and political violence in America: New data for Summer 2020. Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project (ACLED). https://acleddata.com/2020/09/03/demonstrations-political-violence-in-america-new-data-for-summer-2020/.Google Scholar
Leath, S., & Chavous, T. (2017). “We really protested”: The influence of sociopolitical beliefs, political self-efficacy, and campus racial climate on civic engagement among Black college students attending predominantly white institutions. The Journal of Negro Education, 86(3), 220237. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.7709/jnegroeducation.86.3.0220.Google Scholar
Lewis, J. A., Mendenhall, R., Ojiemwen, A. et al. (2021). Racial microaggressions and sense of belonging at a historically white university. American Behavioral Scientist, 65(8), 10491071. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764219859613.Google Scholar
Lozada, F. T., Jagers, R. J., Smith, C. D., Bañales, J., & Hope, E. C. (2017). Prosocial behaviors of Black adolescent boys: An application of a sociopolitical development theory. Journal of Black Psychology, 43(5), 493516. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798416652021.Google Scholar
Lundberg, K., Kiesa, A., & Medina, A. (2021). The 2020 election is over, but young people believe in continued engagement. Center for Information & Research on Civic Learning and Engagement. https://circle.tufts.edu/latest-research/2020-election-over-young-people-believe-continued-engagement.Google Scholar
Martin, A. C. (2008). Television media as a potential negative factor in the racial identity development of African American youth. Academic Psychiatry, 32(4), 338342. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ap.32.4.338.Google Scholar
Mathews, C. J., Bañales, J., Christophe, N. K., Briggs, A. S., & Hope, E. C. (in press). Action, but make it critical: The measurement and developmental processes of critical action for Black and Latinx youth. In Witherspoon, D. & Livas Stein, G. (Eds.), Diversity and developmental science: Bridging the gaps between research, practice, and policy. Springer.Google Scholar
Mathews, C. J., Medina, M. A., Bañales, J. et al. (2019). Mapping the intersections of adolescents’ ethnic-racial identity and critical consciousness. Adolescent Research Review, 43(3), 117. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-019-00122-0.Google Scholar
Montoro, J. P., Kilday, J. E., Rivas-Drake, D., Ryan, A. M., & Taylor, A. J. U. (2020). Coping with discrimination from peers and adults: Implications for adolescents’ school belonging. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 30(2), 118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01360-5.Google Scholar
Mosley, D. V., Hargons, C. N., Meiller, C. et al. (2021). Critical consciousness of anti-Black racism: A practical model to prevent and resist racial trauma. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 68(1), 116. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000430.Google Scholar
Neville, H. A., & Cross, W. E. (2017). Racial awakening: Epiphanies and encounters in Black racial identity. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 23(1), 102108. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000105.Google Scholar
Nguyen, B. M. D., Noguera, P., Adkins, N., & Teranishi, R. T. (2019). Ethnic discipline gap: Unseen dimensions of racial disproportionality in school discipline. American Educational Research Journal, 56(5), 19732003. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831219833919.Google Scholar
Oosterhoff, B., Poppleer, A., Hill, R. M., Fitzgerald, H., & Shook, N. J. (2021). Understanding the costs and benefits of politics among adolescents within a sociocultural context. Infant and Child Development, Advanced Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.2280.Google Scholar
Pancer, S. M., Pratt, M., Hunsberger, B., & Alisat, S. (2007). Community and political involvement in adolescence: What distinguishes the activists from the uninvolved? Journal of Community Psychology, 35(6), 741759. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20176.Google Scholar
Pinedo, A., Durkee, M. I., Diemer, M., & Hope, E. C. (2021). Disentangling racial discrimination and critical action among Black and Latinx college students: What role do peers play? Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 27(3), 546557. https://doi.org/gb9b.Google Scholar
Richards-Schuster, K., & Aldana, A. (2013). Learning to speak out about racism: Youths’ insights on participation in an intergroup dialogues program. Social Work with Groups, 36(4), 332348. https://doi.org/10.1080/01609513.2013.763327.Google Scholar
Riley, T. N., DeLaney, E., Brown, D. et al. (2020). The associations between African American emerging adults’ racial discrimination and civic engagement via emotion regulation. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 27(2), 169175. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000335.Google Scholar
Seaton, E. K., Gee, G. C., Neblett, E., & Spanierman, L. (2018). New directions for racial discrimination research as inspired by the integrative model. American Psychologist, 73(6), 768780. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000315.Google Scholar
Singh, S., Berezin, M. N., Wallach, L. N., Godfrey, E. B., & Javdani, S. (2020). Traumatic incidents and experiences of racism and sexism: Examining associations with components of critical consciousness for system‐involved girls of color. American Journal of Community Psychology, 6(2), 312. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12479.Google Scholar
Spencer, M. B., Fegley, S. G., & Harpalani, V. (2003). A theoretical and empirical examination of identity as coping: Linking coping resources to the self processes of African American youth. Applied Developmental, 7(3), 181188. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532480xads0703_9.Google Scholar
Stewart, A., Schuschke, J., & Tynes, B. (2019) Online racism: Adjustment and protective factors among adolescents of color. In Fitzgerald, H., Johnson, D., Qin, D., Villarruel, F., & Norder, J (Eds.), Handbook of Children and Prejudice (pp. 501513). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12228-7_28.Google Scholar
Stokes, M. N., Charity-Parkeer, B. M., & Hope, E. C. (2021). What does it mean to be Black and white? A meta-ethnographic review of racial socialization in multiracial families. Journal of Family Theory and Review, 13(2), 181201. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12413.Google Scholar
Suzuki, S., Morris, S. L., & Johnson, S. K. (2021). Using QuantCrit to advance an anti-racist developmental science: Applications to mixture modeling. Journal of Adolescent Research, 36(5), 535560. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F07435584211028229.Google Scholar
Szymanski, D. M. (2012). Racist events and individual coping styles as predictors of African American activism. Journal of Black Psychology, 38(3), 342367. https://doi.org/ccx55h.Google Scholar
Szymanski, D. M., & Lewis, J. A. (2015). Race-related stress and racial identity as predictors of African American activism. Journal of Black Psychology, 41(2), 170191. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798414520707.Google Scholar
Tao, X., & Fisher, C. B. (2022). Exposure to social media racial discrimination and mental health among adolescents of color. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 51, 3044. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-021-01514-z.Google Scholar
Terriquez, V. (2017). Legal status, civic organizations, and political participation among Latino young adults. The Sociological Quarterly, 58(2), 315336. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380253.2017.1296756.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Terriquez, V., Brenes, T., & Lopez, A. (2018). Intersectionality as a multipurpose collective action frame: The case of the undocumented youth movement. Ethnicities, 18(2), 260276. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468796817752558.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tessler, H., Choi, M., & Kao, G. (2020). The anxiety of being Asian American: Hate crimes and negative biases during the COVID-19 pandemic. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45(4), 636646. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09541-5.Google Scholar
Thompson, C. E., & Alfred, D. M. (2009). Black liberation psychology and practice. In Neville, H. A., Tynes, B. M., & Utsey, S. O. (Eds.), Handbook of African American psychology (pp. 483494). Sage Publications, Inc.Google Scholar
Tyler, C. P., Geldhof, G. J., Settersten, Jr., R. A., & Flay, B. R. (2021). How do discrimination and self-esteem control beliefs affect prosociality? An examination among Black and Latinx youth. Journal of Early Adolescence, 41(2), 282308. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431620912486.Google Scholar
Tyler, C. P., Olsen, S. G., Geldhof, G. J., & Bowers, E. P. (2020). Critical consciousness in late adolescence: Understanding if, how, and why youth act. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 70, 101165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101165.Google Scholar
Utsey, S. O., & Ponterotto, J. G. (1996). Development and validation of the Index of Race-Related Stress (IRRS). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43(4), 490501. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.43.4.490.Google Scholar
Volpe, V. V., Lee, D. B., Hoggard, L. S., & Rahal, D. (2019). Racial discrimination and acute physiological responses among Black young adults: The role of racial identity. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(2), 179185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.09.004.Google Scholar
Watson-Singleton, N. N., Mekawi, Y., Wilkins, K. V., & Jatta, I. F. (2020). Racism’s effect on depressive symptoms: Examining perseverative cognition and Black Lives Matter activism as moderators. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 68(1), 2737. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000436.Google Scholar
Watts, R. J., & Guessous, O. (2006). Sociopolitical development: The missing link in research and policy on adolescents. In Ginwright, S., Noguera, P., & Cammarota, J. (Eds.), Beyond resistance! Youth activism and community change: New democratic possibilities for practice and policy for America’s youth (pp. 5980). Routledge.Google Scholar
Watts, R. J., & Hipolito-Delgado, C. P. (2015). Thinking ourselves to liberation? Advancing sociopolitical action in critical consciousness. The Urban Review, 47(5), 847867. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-015-0341-x.Google Scholar
Webster, N. (2021). Acknowledging the historical contributions of Black youth’s civic engagement in society. Sociology Compass, 15(5), 117. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12871.Google Scholar
White-Johnson, R. L. (2012). Prosocial involvement among African American young adults: Considering racial discrimination and racial identity. Journal of Black Psychology, 38(3), 313341. https://doi.org/bzh6dt.Google Scholar
White-Johnson, R. L. (2015). The impact of racial socialization on the academic performance and prosocial involvement of Black emerging adults. Journal of College Student Development, 56(2), 140154. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2015.0015.Google Scholar
Williams, D. R., Neighbors, H. W., & Jackson, J. S. (2003). Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: Findings from community studies. American Journal of Public Health, 93(2), 200208. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.93.2.200.Google Scholar
Woodson, C. G. (1933). The mis-education of the Negro. Associated Publishers.Google Scholar
Yellow Horse, A. J., Kuo, K., Seaton, E. K., & Vargas, E. D. (2021). Asian Americans’ indifference to Black Lives Matter: The role of nativity, belonging and acknowledgment of anti-Black racism. Social Sciences, 10, 168183. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10050168.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×