Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T00:10:14.506Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 9 - Emotional Anatomy

Facial Expressions and Botulinum Toxin

from Part IV - The Effects of Facial Movement Impairment of Emotion Communication

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 December 2023

By
Haowei Han ,
Anita Gade ,
Francesca Ceci ,
Austin Dunn  and
Mark S. Nestor
Edited by
Ursula Hess ,
Reginald B. Adams, Jr.  and
Robert E. Kleck
Ursula Hess
Affiliation:
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
Reginald B. Adams, Jr.
Affiliation:
Pennsylvania State University
Robert E. Kleck
Affiliation:
Dartmouth College, New Hampshire
Get access

Summary

Emotion is vital part of our routine communication. The facial feedback hypothesis is the theory of how internal emotion is modulated by the external facial movements used to express it. Botulinum toxin injection is the most common aesthetic procedure in the United States. It has been studied extensively for its cosmetic use in wrinkle reduction, but its secondary psychological effects have only been elucidated gradually over the last two decades. Although neurotoxin is considered safe and effective, it may also potentially affect our facial expressions and communications. Similar to neurotoxin, another example that affects our social interactions is the facial mask, after the COVID-19 pandemic. In this chapter, we hereby discuss how neurotoxin affects our emotions and nonverbal communications.

Keywords

NeurotoxinMajor Depressive DisorderCOVID-19Facial Feedback TheoryFacial Mimicry
Type
Chapter
Information
Emotion Communication by the Aging Face and Body
A Multidisciplinary View
 , pp. 217 - 240
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abel, E. L., & Kruger, M. L. (2010). Smile intensity in photographs predicts longevity. Psychological Science, 21(4), 542–544.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Acosta, A., Adams, R. B., Jr, Albohn, D. N., et al. (2016). Registered replication report: Strack, Martin, & Stepper (1988). Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 11(6), 917–928.Google Scholar
Alam, M., Barrett, K. C., Hodapp, R. M., & Arndt, K. A. (2008). Botulinum toxin and the facial feedback hypothesis: can looking better make you feel happier? Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 58(6), 1061–1072.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
The American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery. (2021a, March 30). Aesthetic Plastic Surgery National Database Statistics 2020. https://cdn.theaestheticsociety.org/media/statistics/aestheticplasticsurgerynationaldatabank-2020stats.pdfGoogle Scholar
The American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery. (2021b, March 30). The Aesthetic Society releases annual statistics revealing Americans spent over $9 billion on aesthetic plastic surgery in 2020. www.surgery.org/media/news-releases/the-aesthetic-society-stats-reveal-americans-spent-over-9-billion-aesthetic-plastic-surgery-2020Google Scholar
Becker, W. J. (2020). Botulinum toxin in the treatment of headache. Toxins, 12(12). http://10.3390/toxins12120803CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bolognia, J. L. (1995). Aging skin. The American Journal of Medicine, 98(1A), 99S–103S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borgomaneri, S., Bolloni, C., Sessa, P., & Avenanti, A. (2020). Blocking facial mimicry affects recognition of facial and body expressions. PloS One, 15(2), e0229364.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradley, B., Backus, D., & Gray, E. (2016). Depression in the older adult: What should be considered? The Mental Health Clinician, 6(5), 222–228.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bressington, D. T., Cheung, T. C. C., Lam, S. C., et al. (2020). Association between depression, health beliefs, and face mask use during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Psychiatry / Frontiers Research Foundation, 11, 571179.Google ScholarPubMed
Brin, M. F., Durgam, S., Lum, A., et al. (2020). OnabotulinumtoxinA for the treatment of major depressive disorder: A phase 2 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in adult females. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(1), 19–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carbon, C.-C. (2020). Wearing face masks strongly confuses counterparts in reading emotions. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 566886.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carragher, D. J., & Hancock, P. J. B. (2020). Surgical face masks impair human face matching performance for familiar and unfamiliar faces. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 5(1), 59.Google ScholarPubMed
Carruthers, J., Fagien, S., Matarasso, S. L., & Botox Consensus Group. (2004). Consensus recommendations on the use of botulinum toxin type a in facial aesthetics. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 114 (6 suppl.), 1S–22S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, B. L., Wilson, A. J., Taglienti, A. J., et al. (2016). Patient perceived benefit in facial aesthetic procedures: FACE-Q as a tool to study botulinum toxin injection outcomes. Aesthetic Surgery Journal / the American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 36(7), 810–820.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chaudhary, M., Khan, A., & Gupta, M. (2020). Skin ageing: Pathophysiology and current market treatment approaches. Current Aging Science, 13(1), 22–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chugh, S., Chhabria, A., Jung, S., Kruger, T. H. C., & Wollmer, M. A. (2018). Botulinum toxin as a treatment for depression in a real-world setting. Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 24(1), 15–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coles, N. A., Larsen, J. T., Kuribayashi, J., & Kuelz, A. (2019). Does blocking facial feedback via botulinum toxin injections decrease depression? A critical review and meta-analysis. Emotion Review: Journal of the International Society for Research on Emotion, 11(4), 294–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coles, N. A., Larsen, J. T., & Lench, H. C. (2019). A meta-analysis of the facial feedback literature: Effects of facial feedback on emotional experience are small and variable. Psychological Bulletin, 145(6), 610–651.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Damiani, G., Gironi, L. C., Grada, A., et al. (2021). COVID-19 related masks increase severity of both acne (maskne) and rosacea (mask rosacea): Multi-center, real-life, telemedical, and observational prospective study. Dermatologic Therapy, 34(2), e14848.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, J. I., Senghas, A., Brandt, F., & Ochsner, K. N. (2010). The effects of BOTOX injections on emotional experience. Emotion, 10(3), 433–440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, J. I., Senghas, A., & Ochsner, K. N. (2009). How does facial feedback modulate emotional experience? Journal of Research in Personality, 43(5), 822–829.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dondé, C., Pouchon, A., Pelluet, A., Bougerol, T., & Polosan, M. (2021). The impact of wearing a face mask on the psychiatric interview: A national survey during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Psychiatric Quarterly. http://10.1007/s11126-021-09962-3Google Scholar
Ekman, P., Davidson, R. J., & Friesen, W. V. (1990). The Duchenne smile: Emotional expression and brain physiology. II. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(2), 342–353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1971). Constants across cultures in the face and emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17(2), 124–129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ettman, C. K., Abdalla, S. M., Cohen, G. H., et al. (2020). Prevalence of depression symptoms in US adults before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. JAMA Network Open, 3(9), e2019686–e2019686.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fernández-Dols, J.-M., Carrera, P., & Crivelli, C. (2011). Facial behavior while experiencing sexual excitement. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 35(1), 63–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finzi, E., & Rosenthal, N. E. (2014). Treatment of depression with onabotulinumtoxinA: a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled trial. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 52, 1–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Finzi, E., & Wasserman, E. (2006). Treatment of depression with botulinum toxin A: A case series. Dermatologic Surgery: Official Publication for American Society for Dermatologic Surgery, 32(5), 645–649; discussion 649–650.Google ScholarPubMed
Fiske, A., Wetherell, J. L., & Gatz, M. (2009). Depression in older adults. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 5, 363–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fitousi, D., Rotschild, N., Pnini, C., & Azizi, O. (2021). Understanding the impact of face masks on the processing of facial identity, emotion, age, and gender. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 743793.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flynn, T. C. (2007). Botox in men. Dermatologic Therapy, 20(6), 407–413.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foo, C. C. I., Goon, A. T. J., Leow, Y.-H., & Goh, C.-L. (2006). Adverse skin reactions to personal protective equipment against severe acute respiratory syndrome: A descriptive study in Singapore. Contact Dermatitis, 55(5), 291–294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freud, E., Stajduhar, A., Rosenbaum, R. S., Avidan, G., & Ganel, T. (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic masks the way people perceive faces. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 22344.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gorawara-Bhat, R., & Cook, M. A. (2011). Eye contact in patient-centered communication. Patient Education and Counseling, 82(3), 442–447.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gori, M., Schiatti, L., & Amadeo, M. B. (2021). Masking emotions: Face masks impair how we read emotions. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 669432.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Han, C., Park, G.-Y., Wang, S.-M., et al. (2012). Can botulinum toxin improve mood in depressed patients? [Review of Can botulinum toxin improve mood in depressed patients?]. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 12(9), 1049–1051.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Han, C., Shi, J., Chen, Y., & Zhang, Z. (2020). Increased flare of acne caused by long-time mask wearing during COVID-19 pandemic among general population. Dermatologic Therapy, 33(4), e13704.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harker, L., & Keltner, D. (2001). Expressions of positive emotion in women’s college yearbook pictures and their relationship to personality and life outcomes across adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(1), 112–124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haughney, K. (2018, October 26). Massive study by FSU researchers confirms that loneliness increases risk of dementia. Florida State University News. https://news.fsu.edu/news/health-medicine/2018/10/26/massive-study-by-fsu-researchers-confirms-that-loneliness-increases-risk-of-dementia/Google Scholar
Havas, D. A., Glenberg, A. M., Gutowski, K. A., Lucarelli, M. J., & Davidson, R. J. (2010). Cosmetic use of botulinum toxin-a affects processing of emotional language. Psychological Science, 21(7), 895–900.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heisig, M., & Reich, A. (2018). Psychosocial aspects of rosacea with a focus on anxiety and depression. Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology, 11, 103–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hennenlotter, A., Dresel, C., Castrop, F., et al. (2009). The link between facial feedback and neural activity within central circuitries of emotion: New insights from botulinum toxin-induced denervation of frown muscles. Cerebral Cortex, 19(3), 537–542.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herrando, C., & Constantinides, E. (2021). Emotional contagion: A brief overview and future directions. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 712606.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hexsel, D., Brum, C., Siega, C., et al. (2013). Evaluation of self-esteem and depression symptoms in depressed and nondepressed subjects treated with onabotulinumtoxinA for glabellar lines. Dermatologic Surgery: Official Publication for American Society for Dermatologic Surgery, 39(7), 1088–1096.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hollon, S. D., DeRubeis, R. J., Fawcett, J., et al. (2014). Effect of cognitive therapy with antidepressant medications vs antidepressants alone on the rate of recovery in major depressive disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 71(10), 1157–1164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hua, W., Zuo, Y., Wan, R., et al. (2020). Short-term skin reactions following use of N95 respirators and medical masks. Contact Dermatitis, 83(2), 115–121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Institute of Health Metrics and Evaluation. (n.d.). Global Health Data Exchange. http://ghdx.healthdata.org/gbd-results-tool?params=gbd-api-2019-permalink/d780dffbe8a381b25e1416884959e88bGoogle Scholar
Ionescu, D. F., Rosenbaum, J. F., & Alpert, J. E. (2015). Pharmacological approaches to the challenge of treatment-resistant depression. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 17(2), 111–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jandhyala, R. (2013). Impact of botulinum toxin a on the quality of life of subjects following treatment of facial lines. The Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology, 6(9), 41–45.Google ScholarPubMed
Jones, R. (2013). Communication in the real world: An introduction to communication studies. Open Textbook Library.Google Scholar
Kastendieck, T., Zillmer, S., & Hess, U. (2022). (Un)mask yourself! Effects of face masks on facial mimicry and emotion perception during the COVID-19 pandemic. Cognition and Emotion, 36(1), 59–69. http://10.1080/02699931.2021.1950639CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keillor, J. M., Barrett, A. M., Crucian, G. P., Kortenkamp, S., & Heilman, K. M. (2002). Emotional experience and perception in the absence of facial feedback. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS, 8(1), 130–135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, M. J., Neta, M., Davis, F. C., et al. (2014). Botulinum toxin-induced facial muscle paralysis affects amygdala responses to the perception of emotional expressions: Preliminary findings from an A-B-A design. Biology of Mood & Anxiety Disorders, 4(1), 11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kruger, T. H. C., Magid, M., & Wollmer, M. A. (2016). Can botulinum toxin help patients with borderline personality disorder? The American Journal of Psychiatry, 173(9), 940–941.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kruger, T. H. C., & Wollmer, M. A. (2015). Depression: An emerging indication for botulinum toxin treatment. Toxicon: Official Journal of the International Society on Toxinology, 107(Pt A), 154–157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kwan, R. Y. C., Lee, P. H., Cheung, D. S. K., & Lam, S. C. (2021). Face mask wearing behaviors, depressive symptoms, and health beliefs among older people during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers of Medicine, 8, 590936.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, M. B. (2018). The interactions between botulinum-toxin-based facial treatments and embodied emotions. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 14720.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, M. B., & Bowler, P. J. (2009). Botulinum toxin cosmetic therapy correlates with a more positive mood. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, 8(1), 24–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, Y., Liu, T., & Luo, W. (2021). Botulinum neurotoxin therapy for depression: Therapeutic mechanisms and future perspective. Frontiers in Psychiatry / Frontiers Research Foundation, 12, 584416.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loneliness and social isolation linked to serious health conditions. (2021, April 30). www.cdc.gov/aging/publications/features/lonely-older-adults.htmlGoogle Scholar
Lukaviciute, L., Ganceviciene, R., Navickas, P., et al. (2020). Anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation amongst patients with facial dermatoses (acne, rosacea, perioral dermatitis, and folliculitis) in Lithuania. Dermatology, 236(4), 314–322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Magid, M., Finzi, E., Kruger, T. H. C., et al. (2015). Treating depression with botulinum toxin: a pooled analysis of randomized controlled trials. Pharmacopsychiatry, 48(6), 205–210.Google ScholarPubMed
Magid, M., Reichenberg, J. S., Poth, P. E., et al. (2014). Treatment of major depressive disorder using botulinum toxin A: a 24-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 75(8), 837–844.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maisel, A., Waldman, A., Furlan, K., et al. (2018). Self-reported patient motivations for seeking cosmetic procedures. JAMA Dermatology, 154(10), 1167–1174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marsh, A. A., Rhoads, S. A., & Ryan, R. M. (2019). A multi-semester classroom demonstration yields evidence in support of the facial feedback effect. Emotion, 19(8), 1500–1504.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mathers, C. D., & Loncar, D. (2006). Projections of global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to 2030. PLoS Medicine, 3(11), e442.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mehrabian, A. (1971). Silent messages. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.Google Scholar
Mheidly, N., Fares, M. Y., Zalzale, H., & Fares, J. (2020). Effect of face masks on interpersonal communication during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Public Health, 8, 582191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moudatsou, M., Stavropoulou, A., Philalithis, A., & Koukouli, S. (2020). The role of empathy in health and social care professionals. Healthcare (Basel, Switzerland), 8(1). http://10.3390/healthcare8010026CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muller, A. E., Hafstad, E. V., Himmels, J. P. W., et al. (2020). The mental health impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on healthcare workers, and interventions to help them: A rapid systematic review. Psychiatry Research, 293, 113441.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, C. J. L., Vos, T., Lozano, R., et al. (2012). Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990-2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. The Lancet, 380(9859), 2197–2223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neal, D. T., & Chartrand, T. L. (2011). Embodied emotion perception: Amplifying and dampening facial feedback modulates emotion perception accuracy. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(6), 673–678.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nestor, M. S., Fischer, D. L., & Arnold, D. (2020). “Masking” our emotions: Botulinum toxin, facial expression, and well-being in the age of COVID-19. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, 19(9), 2154–2160.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nestor, M. S., Han, H., Gade, A., et al. (2021). Botulinum toxin-induced blepharoptosis: Anatomy, etiology, prevention, and therapeutic options. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, 20(10), 3133–3146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Niedenthal, P. M. (2007). Embodying emotion. Science, 316(5827), 1002–1005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Niedenthal, P. M., Winkielman, P., Mondillon, L., & Vermeulen, N. (2009). Embodiment of emotion concepts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(6), 1120–1136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nigam, P. K., & Nigam, A. (2010). Botulinum toxin. Indian Journal of Dermatology, 55(1), 8–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noyes, E., Davis, J. P., Petrov, N., Gray, K. L. H., & Ritchie, K. L. (2021). The effect of face masks and sunglasses on identity and expression recognition with super-recognizers and typical observers. Royal Society Open Science, 8(3), 201169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parsaik, A. K., Mascarenhas, S. S., Hashmi, A., et al. (2016). Role of botulinum toxin in depression. Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 22(2), 99–110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pazhoohi, F., Forby, L., & Kingstone, A. (2021). Facial masks affect emotion recognition in the general population and individuals with autistic traits. PloS One, 16(9), e0257740.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pons, F., Bosch, L., & Lewkowicz, D. J. (2015). Bilingualism modulates infants’ selective attention to the mouth of a talking face. Psychological Science, 26(4), 490–498.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Products – data briefs – number 377 – September 2020. (2020, September 8). www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db377.htmGoogle Scholar
Satriyasa, B. K. (2019). Botulinum toxin (Botox) A for reducing the appearance of facial wrinkles: a literature review of clinical use and pharmacological aspect. Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology, 12, 223–228.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schulze, J., Neumann, I., Magid, M., et al. (2021). Botulinum toxin for the management of depression: An updated review of the evidence and meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 135, 332–340.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, G. E., Fair, P. L., Salt, P., Mandel, M. R., & Klerman, G. L. (1976a). Facial muscle patterning to affective imagery in depressed and nondepressed subjects. Science, 192(4238), 489–491.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, G. E., Fair, P. L., Salt, P., Mandel, M. R., & Klerman, G. L. (1976b). Facial expression and imagery in depression: An electromyographic study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 38(5), 337–347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seibt, B., Mühlberger, A., Likowski, K. U., & Weyers, P. (2015). Facial mimicry in its social setting. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shin, J. W., Kwon, S. H., Choi, J. Y., et al. (2019). Molecular mechanisms of dermal aging and antiaging approaches. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 20(9). http://10.3390/ijms20092126CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singh, C., Dulku, A., Haq, A., Bhatti, T., & Bhatti, A. (2015). Why do females use botulinum toxin injections? Journal of Cutaneous and Aesthetic Surgery, 8(4), 236–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slade, S., & Sergent, S. R. (2021). Interview techniques. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing.Google Scholar
Söderkvist, S., Ohlén, K., & Dimberg, U. (2018). How the experience of emotion is modulated by facial feedback. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 42(1), 129–151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soussignan, R. (2002). Duchenne smile, emotional experience, and autonomic reactivity: a test of the facial feedback hypothesis. Emotion, 2(1), 52–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spitzer, M. (2020). Masked education? The benefits and burdens of wearing face masks in schools during the current Corona pandemic. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 20, 100138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Storr, M., Allescher, H. D., Rösch, T., et al. (2001). Treatment of symptomatic diffuse esophageal spasm by endoscopic injections of botulinum toxin: a prospective study with long-term follow-up. Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, 54(6), 754–759.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strack, F., Martin, L. L., & Stepper, S. (1988). Inhibiting and facilitating conditions of the human smile: A nonobtrusive test of the facial feedback hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(5), 768–777.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sutin, A. R., Stephan, Y., Luchetti, M., & Terracciano, A. (2020). Loneliness and risk of dementia. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 75(7), 1414–1422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Valtorta, N. K., Kanaan, M., Gilbody, S., Ronzi, S., & Hanratty, B. (2016). Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for coronary heart disease and stroke: Systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal observational studies. Heart, 102(13), 1009–1016.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vilella, R. C., & Reddivari, A. K. R. (2021). Empathy. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing.Google Scholar
Vogel, D., Meyer, M., & Harendza, S. (2018). Verbal and non-verbal communication skills including empathy during history taking of undergraduate medical students. BMC Medical Education, 18(1), 157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Voineskos, D., Daskalakis, Z. J., & Blumberger, D. M. (2020). Management of treatment-resistant depression: Challenges and strategies. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 16, 221–234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, C., Chudzicka-Czupała, A., Grabowski, D., et al. (2020). The association between physical and mental health and face mask use during the COVID-19 pandemic: A comparison of two countries with different views and practices. Frontiers in Psychiatry / Frontiers Research Foundation, 11, 569981.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, C., López-Núñez, M. I., Pan, R., et al. (2021). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on physical and mental health in China and Spain: Cross-sectional study. JMIR Formative Research, 5(5), e27818.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wild, B., Erb, M., Eyb, M., Bartels, M., & Grodd, W. (2003). Why are smiles contagious? An fMRI study of the interaction between perception of facial affect and facial movements. Psychiatry Research, 123(1), 17–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wollina, U., & Konrad, H. (2005). Managing adverse events associated with botulinum toxin type A: a focus on cosmetic procedures. American Journal of Clinical Dermatology, 6(3), 141–150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wollmer, M. A., de Boer, C., Kalak, N., et al. (2012). Facing depression with botulinum toxin: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 46(5), 574–581.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wollmer, M. A., Magid, M., Kruger, T. H. C., & Finzi, E. (2021). The use of botulinum toxin for treatment of depression. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, 263, 265–278.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wollmer, M. A., Neumann, I., Jung, S., et al. (2022). Clinical effects of glabellar botulinum toxin injections on borderline personality disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 36(2), 159–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xu, Q., Mao, Z., Wei, D., et al. (2022). Association between mask wearing and anxiety symptoms during the outbreak of COVID 19: A large survey among 386,432 junior and senior high school students in China. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 153, 110709.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zamanian, A., Ghanbari Jolfaei, A., Mehran, G., & Azizian, Z. (2017). Efficacy of botox versus placebo for treatment of patients with major depression. Iranian Journal of Public Health, 46(7), 982–984.Google ScholarPubMed
Zhang, J., Lu, H., Zeng, H., et al. (2020). The differential psychological distress of populations affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 87, 49–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zigmond, A. S., & Snaith, R. P. (1983). The hospital anxiety and depression scale. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 67(6), 361–370. http://10.1111/j.1600-0447.1983.tb09716.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×