Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T11:01:18.765Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Bibliography

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 September 2020

Hicham Bou Nassif
Affiliation:
Claremont McKenna College, California
Get access

Summary

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Endgames
Military Response to Protest in Arab Autocracies
, pp. 258 - 287
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

ʿAbdalla, Ahmed. “The Armed Forces and the Democratic Process in Egypt.” Third World Quarterly 10, no. 4 (October1988): 14521465.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ʿAbdalla, Ahmed (ed.). Al-Jaysh wa-l-Dimoqratiyya fi Masr. Cairo: Sina li-l-Nashr, 1990.Google Scholar
ʿAbdallah, Mahmud. “Hares Amn … Wazifa bi-la Muʾahhalat.” Al-Badil, January 12, 2017.Google Scholar
Abdel-Malek, Anouar. Egypt: Military Society: The Army Regime, the Left, and Social Change under Nasser. New York: Random House, 1968.Google Scholar
ʿAbdul-ʿAl, Khaled. “Imbriatoriat al-Shorta al-Masriyya al-Iqtisadiyya.” Al-ʿArabi al-Jadid, December 30, 2016. www.alaraby.co.uk/investigations/2016/12/29/إمبراطورية-الشرطة-المصرية-1. Accessed December 30, 2016.Google Scholar
ʿAbdul-ʿAl, Khaled “Siraʿ al-Jaysh wa-l-Dakhiliyya fi Masr … al-Maʿraka ʿala al-Nufudh.” Al-ʿArabi al-Jadid, April 15, 2015. www.alaraby.co.uk/investigations/2015/4/15/صراع-الجيش-والداخلية-في-مصر-المعركة-على-النفوذ. Accessed March 16, 2016.Google Scholar
ʿAbdul-Aziz, Muhammad, and Hussein, Youssef. “The President, the Son, and the Military: The Question of Succession in Egypt.” The Arab Studies Journal 9/10, no. 2/1 (Fall 2001/Spring 2002): 7388.Google Scholar
ʿAbdul-Fattah, Abul-Fadl. Kunto Naʾiban li-Raʾis al-Mukhabarat. Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 2001.Google Scholar
ʿAbdul-Karim, Ahmad. Hasad Sinin Khasba wa-Thimar Morra, Mudhakkarat Ahmad ʿAbdul-Karim. Beirut: Bissan, 1994.Google Scholar
Abdulrahim, Raja. “War-Torn Syria’s Battered Economy Marked by Inflation and Poverty.” The Wall Street Journal, July 29, 2017. www.wsj.com/articles/war-torn-syrias-battered-economy-marked-by-inflation-and-poverty-1501234205. Accessed August 1, 2017.Google Scholar
Abid, Zohra. “Tunisie. Les faux vrais aveux de Ali Seriati.” Kapitalis, March 12, 2012. www.kapitalis.com/politique/8846-tunisie-les-faux-vrais-aveux-de-ali-seriati.html. Accessed October 23, 2018.Google Scholar
Abu Basha, Hasan. Fi al-Amn wa-l-Siasa, Mudhakkarat Hasan Abu Basha. Cairo: Dar al-Hilal, 1990.Google Scholar
Abu Fakhr, Saqr. Suria wa-Hutam al-Marakeb al-Mubaʿthara, Hiwar maʿ Nabil al-Shueiri, ʿAflaq wa-l-Baʿath wa-l-Muʾamarat wa-l-ʿAskar. Beirut: al- Muʾassasa al-ʿArabiyya li-l-Dirasat wa-l-Nashr, 2005.Google Scholar
Abul-Magd, Zeinab. Militarizing the Nation: The Army, Business, and Revolution in Egypt. New York: Columbia University Press, 2017.Google Scholar
Abul-Magd, Zeinab “Zaman al-Thamaninat al-Jamil: Ayyam Abu Ghazalah.” Al-Manassa, December 30, 2015. https://almanassa.com/ar/story/664. Accessed January 9, 2016.Google Scholar
Abul-Magd, Zeinab “US Military Aid to Egypt Lost Value.” Jadaliyya, July 25, 2013. www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/13186/us-military-aid-to-egypt-lost-value#_edn6. Accessed December 9, 2013.Google Scholar
Abul-Magd, Zeinab “The Egyptian Republic of Retired Generals.” Foreign Policy, May 8, 2012. https://foreignpolicy.com/2012/05/08/the-egyptian-republic-of-retired-generals. Accessed May 12, 2017.Google Scholar
Abul-Nur, ʿAbdul-Muhsen. Al-Haqiqa ʿan Thawrat 23 Yulyu, Mudhakkarat ʿAbdul-Muhsen Abul-Nur. Cairo: al-Hayʾa al-Masriyya li-l-Kitab, 2001.Google Scholar
Achcar, Gilbert. The People Want: A Radical Exploration of the Arab Spring. Berkley, CA: University of California Press, 2013.Google Scholar
Aguero, Filipe. Soldiers, Civilians and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in a Comparative Perspective. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995.Google Scholar
al-Atrash, Mansur. Al-Jil al-Mudan, Sira Dhatiyya. Beirut: Riad al-Rayes, 2008.Google Scholar
al-Ayubi, Nazih. Al-Dawla al-Markaziyya fi Masr. Beirut: Markaz Dirasat al-Wihda al-ʿArabiyya, 1989.Google Scholar
al-Baghdadi, ʿAbdul-Latif. Mudhakkarat ʿAbdul-Latif al-Baghdadi, vol. 2. Cairo: Maktab al-Masri al-Hadith, 1977.Google Scholar
al-Baz, Mohammad. Al-Mushir wa-l-Fariq, al-Malaffat al-Siasiyya li-Tantawi wa-ʿAnnan, Maʿarik al-Ashbah bayna al-Ikhwan wa-l-Jaysh. Cairo: Kunuz li-l-Tawziʿ wa-l-Nashr, 2014.Google Scholar
al-Baz, Mohammad Al-Mushir, Qissat Suʿud wa-Inhiar Abu Ghazalah. Cairo: Kunuz li-l-Tawziʿ wa-l-Nashr, 2007.Google Scholar
al-Bushari, Tareq. Al-Dimoqratiyya wa-Nizam 23 Yulyu, 1952–1970. Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 2013.Google Scholar
Albrecht, Holger, Croissant, Aurel, and Lawson, Fred H. (eds.). Armies and Insurgencies in the Arab Spring. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Albrecht, Holger, and Ohl, Dorothy. “Exit, Resistance, Loyalty: Military Behavior during Unrest in Authoritarian Regimes.” Perspectives on Politics 14, no. 1 (March 2016): 3852.Google Scholar
Albrecht, Holger, and Bishara, Dina. “Back on Horseback: The Military and Political Transformation in Egypt.” Middle East Law and Governance 3, no. 1–2 (2011): 1323.Google Scholar
al-Dahamesha, ʿAbdallah. Suria, Mazraʿat al-Asad. Beirut: Dar al-Nawaʿir, 2011.Google Scholar
al-Dib, Fathi. Abdul Nasser wa-Thawrat Libya. Cairo: Dar al-Mustaqbal al-ʿArabi, 1986.Google Scholar
Alexander, Yonah. “The Politics of Terror.” The Washington Times, March 11, 1987. www.reaganlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/digitallibrary/smof/publicliaison/green/Box-027/40-219-6927378-027-017-2017.pdf. Accessed June 25, 2018.Google Scholar
al-Finchi, Hanem. “Al-Kashef: Mukalamat Telephone Tahmi Tujjar Mukhaddarat.” Al-Wafd, April 1, 2011. www.ahram.org.eg/News/857/38/216600.aspx. Accessed March 27, 2015.Google Scholar
al-Firzli, Suleiman. Hurub al-Nasiriyya wa-l-Baʿath. Beirut: Naufal, 2016.Google Scholar
al-Gamasy, Mohammad ʿAbdul-Ghani. Mudhakkarat al-Gamasy, Harb October 1973. San Francisco, CA: Dar Buhuth al-Sharq al-Awsat al-Amirikiyya, 1977.Google Scholar
al-Gawadi, Mohammad. Qadat al-Shurta al-Masriyya, 1952–2002, Dirasa Tahliliyya wa-Mawsuʿat Shakhsiyyat. Cairo: Madbuli, 2003.Google Scholar
al-Gawadi, Mohammad Mudhakkarat Qadat al-ʿAskariyya al-Masriyya, 1976–1972, fi Aʿqab al-Naksa. Cairo: Dar al-Khayyal, 2001.Google Scholar
al-Haj ʿAli, Muhannad. “Limadha Yulahiq al-Asad Rijal Aʿmalih.” Al-Modon, June 1, 2016. www.almodon.com/opinion/2018/6/1/لماذا-يلاحق-الأسد-رجال-أعماله. Accessed June 1, 2018.Google Scholar
al-Haj Salih, Yassin. “The Syrian Shabiha and Their State: Statehood & Participation.” Heinrich Böll Stiftung, April 16, 2012. https://lb.boell.org/en/2014/03/03/syrian-shabiha-and-their-state-statehood-participation. Accessed June 18, 2018.Google Scholar
al-Husseini, Dina. “Wuzaraʾ Dakhiliyyat Masr min al-Sadat li-l-Sisi.” Al-Bawaba News, September 3, 2015. www.albawabhnews.com/1160398. Accessed September 15, 2015.Google Scholar
al-Jundi, Sami. Al-Baʿath. Beirut: Dar al-Nahar, 1969.Google Scholar
ʿAllam, Fuʾad. Al-Ikhwan wa-Ana, Min al-Manshiah ila al-Minasah. Cairo: Akhbar al-Yawm, 1996.Google Scholar
al-Naggar, Ahmad Sayyid. “Madha Yurid al-Gharb min Iqtisad al-Jaysh al-Masri.” Dunia al-Watan, October 10, 2013. https://pulpit.alwatanvoice.com/content/print/308621.html. Accessed November 27, 2015.Google Scholar
al-Naggar, Ahmad Sayyid “Iqtisad al-Jaysh bayna al-Tahwil wa-Mantiq Tafkik al-Dawla.” Al-Ahram, April 12, 2012. www.ahram.org.eg/Archive/866/2012/4/11/4/142891.aspx. Accessed June 10, 2015.Google Scholar
al-Raggal, ʿAli. “Masr: Jihaz al-Dakhiliyya wa-l-Neoliberaliyya.” Al-Safir, November 10, 2016. http://arabi.assafir.com/Article/5521. Accessed November 10, 2016.Google Scholar
al-Raggal, ʿAli “Al-Tawariʾ ka-Qanun wa-Ideologia li-l-Hokm fi ʿAsr Mubarak.” Al-Safir, June 2, 2016. http://arabi.assafir.com/Article/25/4984. Accessed June 2, 2016.Google Scholar
al-Raggal, ʿAli “Riwayat Ma Jara fi Masr fi al-Ayyam al-Hasima.” Al-Safir, April 21, 2016. http://assafir.com/Article/1/489170/RssFeed. Accessed April 21, 2016.Google Scholar
al-Raggal, ʿAli “Alat al-Qatl fi al-Dawla wa-l-Mawja al-Thawriyya al-Qadima.” Al-Safir, December 31, 2015. http://assafir.com/Article/1/464433/RssFeed. Accessed December 31, 2015.Google Scholar
al-Raggal, ʿAli “Tashaddhi al-Dawla al-Masriyya.” Al-Safir, October 12, 2015. http://assafir.com/Article/69/461062. Accessed October 12, 2015.Google Scholar
al-Razzaz, Munif. Al-Tajriba al-Murra. Beirut: Dar Ghandur li-l-Tibaʿa wa-l-Nashr, 1966.Google Scholar
al-Sadat, Anwar. Al-Bahth ʿan al-Dhat, Qissat Hayati. Cairo: al-Maktab al-Masri al-Hadith, 1979.Google Scholar
al-Safadi, Mutaʿ. Hizb al-Baʿath, Maʾsat al-Mawled, Maʾsat al-Nihaya. Beirut: Dar al-Adab, 1964.Google Scholar
al-Safrani, Ahmad. “Siraʿ al-Qabila wa-Asrar Maqtal Hasan Shkal.” Libya al-Mustaqbal, August 7, 2009. http://archive.libya-almostakbal.org/Articles0809/ahmad_assafrani_070809.html. Accessed December 7, 2018.Google Scholar
al-Sayyed, Jalal. Hezb al-Baʿath al-ʿArabi. Beirut: Dar al-Nahar, 1973.Google Scholar
al-Sharif, Ashraf. “Kamal al-Din Hussein wa-Wujuh Dawlat Yulu al-Muhafiza.” Mada Masr, October 1, 2015. www.madamasr.com/ar/opinion/politics. Accessed October 4, 2015.Google Scholar
al-Shazli, Saʿad al-Din. Harb October, Mudhakkarat al-Fariq Saʿad al-Din al-Shazli. Cairo: Ruʾya li-l-Nashr wa-l-Tawziʿ, 2011.Google Scholar
al-Wali, Mamduh, and ʿAbdul-Nasser, Salemeh. “Tawarrut Ruʾassa Amn al-Dawla al-Sabiqayn fi al-Istilaʾ ʿala Aradi.” Al-Ahram, June 21, 2013. www.ahram.org.eg/News/857/38/216600.aspx. Accessed June 21, 2013.Google Scholar
Anderson, Jack. “Syrians Aiding Heroin Traffic in Bekaa Valley.” The Washington Post, February 1, 1984. CIA approved for release December 21, 2011, no. RDP90-00965R000100130129-8. www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP90-00965R000100130129-8.pdf. Accessed May 26, 2018.Google Scholar
Anderson, Jack “Syrian Factions Challenge Assad for Dominance.” The Washington Post, July 15, 1983. CIA approved for release April 13, 2012, no. CIA-RDP90-00965R00010040058-6. www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP90-00965R000100140058-6.pdf. Accessed May 25, 2018.Google Scholar
Anderson, Lisa. “Libya’s Qaddafi: Still in Command?Current History 86 (February 1987): 6587.Google Scholar
Anderson, Lisa The State and Social Transformation in Tunisia and Libya, 1830–1980. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986.Google Scholar
Aroyan, Nubar. Diary of a Soldier in the Egyptian Military: A Peek Inside the Egyptian Army. Bloomington, IN: WestBrow Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Ashour, Omar. “Bullets Beat Ballots: The Arab Uprisings and Civil–Military Relations in Egypt.” In Revisiting the Arab Uprisings: The Politics of a Revolutionary Moment, edited by Lacroix, Stephane and Filiu, Jean-Pierre, 4560. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.Google Scholar
Ashour, Omar “Ballots versus Bullets: The Crisis of Civil–Military Relations in Egypt.” Brookings, September 3, 2013. www.brookings.edu/articles/ballots-versus-bullets-the-crisis-of-civil-military-relations-in-egypt. Accessed March 20, 2019.Google Scholar
Awad, Marwa. “Special Report: In Egypt’s Military, a March for Change.” Reuters, April 10, 2012. www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-army-idUSBRE8390IV20120410. Accessed March 12, 2014.Google Scholar
Awad, Marwa “Egypt Army Officer Says 15 Others Join Protesters.” Reuters, February 11, 2011. www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-protest-officers/egypt-army-officer-says-15-others-join-protesters-idUSTRE71A12V20110211. Accessed June 4, 2013.Google Scholar
Awad, Marwa “Egypt Army Seeks to Free Tahrir Square for Traffic.” Reuters, February 5, 2011. www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-protests/egypt-army-seeks-to-free-tahrir-square-for-traffic-idUSTRE7141S820110205. Accessed January 5, 2014.Google Scholar
Awad, Marwa, and Zayed, Dina. “Army Tries to Limit Cairo Protest Camp Space.” Reuters, February 6, 2011. https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-egypt-protests-army/army-tries-to-limit-cairo-protest-camp-space-idUKTRE71527J20110206. Accessed January 16, 2014.Google Scholar
Ayad, Christophe. “Tunisie. La Révolution En Trois Actes. Carthage, la chute.” Libération, February 5, 2011. www.liberation.fr/planete/2011/02/05/carthage-la-chute_712598. Accessed September 11, 2018.Google Scholar
Bahri, Imad. “Tunisie. Le vrai faux complot de Ben Ali ‘Ben ʿAli, Zein al-ʿAbidin’ contre le général Skik.” Kapitalis, April 23, 2011. www.kapitalis.com/politique/3642-tunisie-le-vrai-faux-lcomplotr-de-ben-ali-contre-legeneral-skik.html. Accessed September 26, 2018.Google Scholar
Baker, Raymond William. Egypt’s Uncertain Revolution under Nasser and Sadat. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978.Google Scholar
Balanche, Fabrice. La région alaouite et le pouvoir syrien. Paris: Editions Kharthala, 2006.Google Scholar
Bar, Shmuel. “Bashar’s Syria: The Regime and Its Strategic Worldview.” Comparative Strategy, no. 25 (2006): 353–345. www.offiziere.ch/wp-content/uploads/Shmuel_Bar_2.pdf. Accessed May 30, 2018.Google Scholar
Barak, Oren, and David, Assaf, “The Arab Security Sector: A New Research Agenda for a Neglected Topic.” Armed Forces & Society 36, no. 5 (2010): 804824.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barany, Zoltan. How Armies Respond to Revolutions and Why. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Barany, Zoltan “Explaining Military Reponses to Revolutions.” Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies, June 26, 2013. www.dohainstitute.org/en/ResearchAndStudies/Pages/Explaining_Military_Responses_to_Revolutions.aspx. Accessed December 15, 2014.Google Scholar
Barany, Zoltan “Why Most Syrian Officers Remain Loyal to Assad.” Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies, June 17, 2013. www.dohainstitute.org/en/PoliticalStudies/Pages/Why_Most_Syrian_Officers_Remain_Loyal_to_Assad.aspx. Accessed June 26, 2018.Google Scholar
Barany, Zoltan The Soldier and the Changing State: Building Democratic Armies in Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Barany, ZoltanComparing the Arab Revolts: The Role of the Military.” Journal of Democracy 22, no. 4 (October 2011): 2435.Google Scholar
Barany, Zoltan Democratic Breakdown and the Decline of the Russian Military. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Barany, ZoltanCivil–Military Relations in Comparative Perspective: East-Central and Southeastern Europe.” Political Studies 41, no. 4 (1993): 594610.Google Scholar
Barayez, ʿAbdul-Fattah. “This Land Is Their Land: Egypt’s Military and the Economy.” Jadaliyya, January 25, 2016. www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/23671/%E2%80%9Cthis-land-is-their-land%E2%80%9D_egypt%E2%80%99s-military-and-the. Accessed January 28, 2017.Google Scholar
Bar-Joseph, Uri. The Angel: The Egyptian Spy Who Saved Israel. New York: HarperCollins, 2016.Google Scholar
Barraca, Steven. “Military Coups in the Post-Cold War Era: Pakistan, Ecuador, and Venezuela.” Third World Quarterly 28, no. 1 (2007): 137154.Google Scholar
Barthe, Benjamin. “Ces Oligarques Syriens qui Tiennent à bout de Bras le Regime Assad.” Le Monde, May 30, 2014. www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2014/05/30/ces-oligarques-syriens-qui-tiennent-a-bout-de-bras-le-regime-assad_4429096_3210.html. Accessed May 30, 2018.Google Scholar
Batatu, Hanna. Syria’s Peasantry, the Descendants of Its Lesser Rural Notables, and Their Politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Batatu, HannaSome Observations on the Social Roots of Syria’s Ruling, Military Group and the Causes for Its Dominance.” Middle East Journal 35, no. 3 (Summer 1981): 331344.Google Scholar
BBC News. “Top Yemeni General, Ali Mohsen, Backs Opposition.” March 21, 2011.www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12804552. Accessed March 24, 2014.Google Scholar
BBC News “Egypt Protests: Curfew Defied in Cairo and Other Cities.” January 29, 2011. www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12314799. Accessed May 12, 2013.Google Scholar
BBC News Army Officers in Arab Politics and Society. New York: Praeger, 1970.Google Scholar
Beau, Nicolas, and Tuquoi, Jean-Pierre. Notre Ami Ben Ali “Ben ʿAli, Zein al-ʿAbidin,” L’envers du Miracle Tunisien. Paris: La Découverte, 2011.Google Scholar
Beau, Nicolas, and Graciet, Catherine. La Régente de Carthage, Main Basse Sur La Tunisie. Paris: La Découverte, 2009.Google Scholar
Beecher, William. “Syrians Are Said to Suspend Terror Role.” Boston Globe, February 1, 1987. CIA approved for release December 21, 2011, no. CIA-RDP90-00965R000100420001-7. www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP90-00965R000100420001-7.pdf. Accessed May 28, 2018.Google Scholar
Be’eri, Eliezer. “The Waning of the Military Coup in Arab Politics.” Middle Easter Studies 18, no. 1 (January 1982): 69128.Google Scholar
Belkin, Aaron, and Schofer, Evan. “Coup Risk, Counterbalancing, and International Conflict.” Security Studies 14, no. 1 (2005): 140177.Google Scholar
Bellin, Eva. “The Puzzle of Democratic Divergence in the Arab World: Theory Confronts Experience in Egypt and Tunisia.” Political Science Quarterly 133, no.3 (Fall 2018): 435474.Google Scholar
Bellin, Eva. “Reconsidering the Robustness of Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Lessons from the Arab Spring.” Comparative Politics 44, no. 2 (2012): 127149.Google Scholar
Belkhodja, Abdelaziz, and Cheikhrouhou, Tarak. 14 Janvier, L’Enquete. Tunis: Apollonia, 2013.Google Scholar
Benadad, Hassan. “Le ‘Hirak’ Algérien Gagne la Citadelle De L’Armée.” Kiosque 360, February 18, 2019. http://fr.le360.ma/politique/le-hirak-algerien-gagne-la-citadelle-de-larmee-184362. Accessed March 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Ben, AliBen ʿAli, Zein al-ʿAbidin,” Leila. Ma Vérité. Paris: Edition du Moment, 2012.Google Scholar
Ben-Kraiem, Boubaker. Naissance d’une armée nationale, la promotion Bourguiba. Tunis: Maison d’édition de Tunis, 2013.Google Scholar
Berridge, W. J. Civilian Uprisings in Modern Sudan: The ‘Khartoum Springs’ of 1964 and 1985. New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015.Google Scholar
Beshara, ʿAzmi. Suria: Darb al-Alam, Muhawala fi al-Tarikh al-Rahin. Doha: al-Markaz al-ʿArabi li-l-Abhath wa-Dirasat al-Siasat, 2013.Google Scholar
Bhalla, Rheva. “Making Sense of the Syrian Uprising.” Stratfor, May 5, 2011. https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/making-sense-syrian-crisis-0. Accessed June 20, 2018.Google Scholar
Bienen, Henry (ed.). The Military Intervenes: Case Studies in Political Development. New York: Russel Sage Foundation, 1968.Google Scholar
Binnendijk, Anika Locke, and Marovic, Ivan. “Power and Persuasion: Nonviolent Strategies to Influence State Security Forces in Serbia(2000) and Ukraine (2004).” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 39, no. 3 (2006): 411429.Google Scholar
Black, Ian. “Libya: Defections Leave Muammar Gaddafi Isolated in Tripoli Bolthole.” The Guardian, February 23, 2011. www.theguardian.com/world/2011/feb/23/muammar-gaddafi-libya-tripoli-uprising. Accessed December 15, 2018.Google Scholar
Black, Ian, Shenker, Jack, and McGreal, Chris. “Egypt Set for Mass Protest as Army Rules Out Force.” The Guardian, January 31, 2011. www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jan/31/egyptian-army-pledges-no-force. Accessed June 15, 2013.Google Scholar
Blair, Edmund, and Nakhoul, Samia. “Egypt Protests Topple Mubarak after 18 Days.” Reuters, February 10, 2011. www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt/egypt-protests-topple-mubarak-after-18-days-idUSTRE70O3UW20110211. Accessed November 5, 2014.Google Scholar
Blumenthal, Sidney. “Intel Report and Options: What Really Happened and What Should Happen Now.” WikiLeaks, February 12, 2011. https://wikileaks.org/clinton-emails/emailid/13117. Accessed April 5, 2016.Google Scholar
Borshchevskaya, Anna. “Sponsored Corruption and Neglected Reform in Syria.” Middle East Quarterly 17, no. 3 (Summer 2010). www.meforum.org/articles/2010/sponsored-corruption-and-neglected-reform-in-syria. Accessed June 1, 2018.Google Scholar
Bou Nassif, Hicham. “Coups and Nascent Democracies: The Military and Egypt’s Failed Consolidation.” Democratization 24, no. 1 (January 2017): 157174.Google Scholar
Bou Nassif, HichamGenerals and Autocrats: How Coup-Proofing Predetermined the Military Elite’s Behavior in the Arab Spring.” Political Science Quarterly 130, no. 2 (2015): 245275.Google Scholar
Bou Nassif, HichamA Military Besieged: The Armed Forces, the Police and the Party in Ben Ali’s Tunisia, 1987–2011.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 47, no. 1 (February 2015): 6587.Google Scholar
Bou Nassif, HichamSecond-Class: The Grievances of Sunni Officers in the Syrian Armed Forces.” Journal of Strategic Studies 38, no. 5 (August 2015): 626649.Google Scholar
Bou Nassif, HichamWedded to Mubarak: The Second Career and Financial Rewards of Egypt’s Military Elite from 1981 till 2011.” The Middle East Journal 67, no. 1 (Winter 2013): 509530.Google Scholar
Boursali, Noura. Bourguiba A l’Epreuve De La Democratie. Tunis: Samed éditions, 2012.Google Scholar
Boyne, Sean. “Assad Purges Security Chiefs to Smooth the Way for Succession.” Jane’s Intelligence Review 11, no. 6 (June 1999): 4.Google Scholar
Bratton, Michael, and van de Walle, Nicolas. Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Brooks, Risa. “Abandoned at the Palace: Why the Tunisian Military Defected from the Ben Ali ‘Ben ʿAli, Zein al-ʿAbidin’ Regime in January 2011.” Journal of Strategic Studies 36, no. 2 (2013): 205220.Google Scholar
Brooks, Risa The Civil–Military Politics of Strategic Assessment. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Brooks, RisaAn Autocracy at War: Explaining Egypt’s Military Effectiveness, 1967 and 1973.” Security Studies 15, no. 3 (2006): 396430.Google Scholar
Brooks, Risa “Political–Military Relations and the Stability of Arab Regimes.” Adelphi paper 324, International Institute for Strategic Studies. London: Oxford University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Brown, Cameron S., Fariss, Christopher J., and McMahon, R. Blake. “Recouping after Coup- Proofing: Compromised Military Effective and Strategic Substitution.” International Relations 42, no. 1 (2016): 130.Google Scholar
Brownlee, Jason. “Peace before Freedom: Diplomacy and Repression in Sadat’s Egypt.” Political Science Quarterly 126, no. 4 (Winter 2011): 641668.Google Scholar
Brownlee, JasonThe Heir Apparency of Gamal Mubarak.” Arab Studies Journal 15/16, no. 2/1 (Fall 2007/Spring 2008): 3656.Google Scholar
Bruce, James. “Changes in the Syrian High Command.” Jane’s Intelligence Review 7, no. 3 (1995): 126128.Google Scholar
Bumiller, Elisabeth. “Egypt Stability Hinges on a Divided Military.” The New York Times, February 5, 2011. www.nytimes.com/2011/02/06/world/middleeast/06military.html. Accessed February 12, 2015.Google Scholar
Camau, Michel, and Geisser, Vincent. Le Syndrome Autoritaire: Politique en Tunisie de Bourguiba à Ben Ali “Ben ʿAli, Zein al-ʿAbidin.” Paris: Presses De Science Po, 2003.Google Scholar
Campbell, Kirk S. “Civil–Military Relations and Political Liberalization: A Comparative Study of the Military’s Corporateness and Political Values in Egypt, Syria, Turkey, and Pakistan.” PhD diss., George Washington University, 2009.Google Scholar
Casey, Nicholas. “Venezuelan Opposition Leader Steps Up Pressure, but Maduro Holds On.” The New York Times, April 30, 2019. www.nytimes.com/2019/04/30/world/americas/venezuela-guaido-maduro.html?action=click&module=Top%20Stories&pgtype=Homepage. Accessed April 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Casey, Nicholas, and Herrero, Anna Vanessa. “As Maduro’s Venezuela Rips Apart, So Does His Military.” The New York Times, August 8, 2017. www.nytimes.com/2017/08/08/world/americas/nicolas-maduro-venezuela-military.html?smid=fb-share&_r=0. Accessed August 10, 2017.Google Scholar
Cassandra. “The Impending Crisis in Egypt.” Middle East Journal 49, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 927.Google Scholar
Central Intelligence Agency. “Syria: Facing the Economic Constraints of the 1990s.” Document RDP90T00100R000500760001-5. Approved for release March 13, 2014. www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP90T00100R000500760001-5.pdf. Accessed May 28, 2018.Google Scholar
Central Intelligence Agency “Syria’s Elite Military Unit: Key to Stability and Succession.” Document RDP88T00096R000500590001-3. Approved for release January 9, 2012. www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP88T00096R000500590001-3.pdf. Accessed June 18, 2018.Google Scholar
Central Intelligence Agency “Syria: Scenarios of Dramatic Political Change.” Document RDP86t01017r000100770001-5. Approved for release February 15, 2011. www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/document/cia-rdp86t01017r000100770001-5. Accessed June 12, 2018.Google Scholar
Central Intelligence Agency “Syria: The Succession Struggle and Rifʿat’s Prospects.” Document RDP85T00314R000200140002-4. Approved for release January 31, 2011. www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP85T00314R000200140002-4.pdf. Accessed June 5, 2018.Google Scholar
Central Intelligence Agency “International Narcotics Development.” Document RDP7900912A001800010017-2.A. Approved for release May 12, 2009. www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP79T00912A001800010017-2.pdf. Accessed May 26, 2018.Google Scholar
Central Intelligence Agency “Syria without Assad: Succession Politics.” Document RDP80T00634A00010052-5. Approved for release May 25, 2006. www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP80T00634A000400010052-5.pdf. Accessed May 26, 2018.Google Scholar
Central Intelligence Agency “Asad’s Domestic Position.” Document RDP85T00353R000100270005-25X1. Approved for release September 29, 2003. www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP85T00353R000100270005-2.pdf. Accessed June 25, 2018.Google Scholar
Chalabi, Ahmad, and al-Badri, Yosri. “Al-Dawla Tastarid 178 Malioun Jineih fi Fasad al-Dakhiliyya.” Egypt Independent, January 28, 2016. www.almasryalyoum.com/news/details/882701. Accessed January 28, 2016.Google Scholar
Chandra, Siddharth, and Kammen, Douglas Anton. “Generating Reforms and Reforming Generations: Military Politics in Indonesia’s Democratic Transition and Consolidation.” World Politics 55, no. 1 (October 2002): 96136.Google Scholar
Charbel, Ghassan. Fi Khaymat al-Qaddhafi, Muʿammar, Rifaq al-ʿAqid Yakchufuun Khabaya ʿAhdih. Beirut: Riad El-Rayyes Book, 2013.Google Scholar
Chehabi, H. E., and Linz, Juan J.. “A Theory of Sultanism 2: Genesis and Demise of Sultanistic Regimes.” In Sultanistic Regimes, edited by Chehabi, H. E. and Linz, Juan J., 2648. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Chelly, Rafik. Le Syndrome De Carthage des Présidents Habib Bourguiba et Zine El Abidine Ben Ali “Ben ʿAli, Zein al-ʿAbidin.” Tunis: Imprimerie Graphique Du Centre, 2012.Google Scholar
Chenoweth, Erica, and Stephan, Maria. Why Civil Resistance Works: The Strategic Logic of Nonviolent Conflict. New York: Columbia University Press. 2011.Google Scholar
Chivvis, Christopher S. Toppling Qaddafi: Libya and the Limits of Liberal Intervention. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Chouet, Alain. “Impact of Wielding Power on ‘AlawiCohesiveness.’” Maghreb-Machrek, no. 147 (January–March 1995): 5.Google Scholar
Chorin, Ethan. Exit the Colonel: The Hidden History of The Libyan Revolution. New York: PublicAffairs, 2012.Google Scholar
Clement, Henry M., and Springborg, Robert. “A Tunisian Solution for Egypt’s Military: Why Egypt’s Military Will Not Be Able to Govern.” Foreign Affairs, February 21, 2011. www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/tunisia/2011–02-21/tunisian-solution-egypt-s-military. Accessed August 7, 2014.Google Scholar
Colton, Timothy J. Commissars, Commanders, and Civilian Authority: The Structure of Soviet Military Politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979.Google Scholar
Cook, Steven A. The Struggle for Egypt: From Nasser to Tahrir Square. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Cook, Steven A. “Five Things You Need to Know about the Egyptian Armed Forces.” Council on Foreign Relations, January 31, 2011. www.cfr.org/blog/five-things-you-need-know-about-egyptian-armed-forces. Accessed February 5, 2019.Google Scholar
Cook, Steven A. Ruling but Not Governing: The Military and Political Development in Egypt, Algeria, and Turkey. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Cooper, Andrew Scott. The Fall of Heaven: The Pahlavis and the Final Days of Imperial Iran. New York: Picador, 2018.Google Scholar
Cooper, Mark N.The Demilitarization of the Egyptian Cabinet.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 14, no. 2 (May 1982): 203225.Google Scholar
Cordesman, Anthony H. “If Mubarak Leaves: The Role of the Egyptian Military.” Center for Strategic and International Studies, February 10, 2011. www.csis.org/analysis/if-mubarak-leaves-role-egyptian-military. Accessed May 15, 2014.Google Scholar
“Corruption in Tunisia: What’s Yours Is Mine.” WikiLeaks, US embassy report ID: 08TUNIS679_a, June 23, 2008. https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/08TUNIS679_a.html. Accessed April 5, 2016.Google Scholar
Croissant, Aurel, Kuehn, David, and Eschenauer, Tanja. “The ‘Dictator’s Endgame’: Explaining Military Behavior in Nonviolent Anti-incumbent Mass Protests.” Democracy and Security 14, no.2 (2018): 174199.Google Scholar
Croissant, Aurel, and Selge, Tobias. “Should I Stay or Should I Go? Comparing Military (Non-) Cooperation during Authoritarian Regime Crises in the Arab World and Asia.” In Armies and Insurgencies in the Arab Spring, edited by Albrecht, Holger, Croissant, Aurel, and Lawson, Fred H., 97124. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Crouch, Harold. The Army and Politics in Indonesia. Singapore: Equinox Publishing, 2007.Google Scholar
Dean, Lucy (ed.). The Middle East and North Africa 2004. New York: Europa Publications, 2004.Google Scholar
De Atkine, Norvell B.Why Arabs Lose Wars.” Middle East Quarterly 6, no. 4 (December 1999). www.meforum.org/441/why-arabs-lose-wars. Accessed September 11, 2014.Google Scholar
De Bruin, Erica. “Preventing Coups- d’état: How Counterbalancing Works.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 62, no. 7 (March 2017): 14331458.Google Scholar
De Bruin, Erica “Coup-Proofing for Dummies: The Benefits of Following the Maliki Playbook.” Foreign Affairs, July 27, 2014. www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/iraq/2014–07-27/coup-proofing-dummies. Accessed July 7, 2014.Google Scholar
Debs, Alexander, and Goemans, Henk E.. “Regime Type, the Fate of Leaders, and War.” American Political Science Review 104, no. 3 (August 2010): 430445.Google Scholar
Decalo, Samuel. Coups and Army Rule in Africa. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.Google Scholar
Dekmejian, Richard H.Egypt and Turkey: The Military in the Background.” In Soldiers, Peasants, and Bureaucrats: Civil–Military Relations in Communist and Modernizing Societies, edited by Kolkowicz, Roman and Korbonski, Andrzej, 2851. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1982.Google Scholar
Dekmejian, Richard H. Egypt under Nasir: A Study in Political Dynamics. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1972.Google Scholar
Demirel, Tanel. “Lessons of Military Regimes and Democracy: The Turkish Case in a Comparative Perspective.” Armed Forces & Society 31, no. 2 (Winter 2005): 245271.Google Scholar
Dix, Robert. “The Breakdown of Authoritarian Regimes.” The Western Political Science Quarterly 35, no. 4 (December 1982): 554573.Google Scholar
Droz-Vincent, Philippe. ‘“Prospects for ‘Democratic Control of the Armed Forces’? Comparative Insights and Lessons for the Arab World in Transition.” Armed Forces & Society 40, no. 4 (2014): 696723.Google Scholar
Droz-Vincent, PhilippeFrom Fighting Formal Wars to Maintaining Civil Peace.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 43, no. 3 (August 2011): 392394.Google Scholar
Drysdale, Alasdair. “The Succession Question in Syria.Middle East Journal 39, no. 2 (Spring 1985): 246257.Google Scholar
Drysdale, AlasdairEthnicity in the Syrian Officer Corps: A Conceptualization.” Civilisations 29, no. 3/4 (1979): 359374.Google Scholar
“Egyptian Revolution Cost At Least 846 Lives.” CBS News, April 19, 2011. www.cbsnews.com/news/egyptian-revolution-cost-at-least-846-lives. Accessed June 15, 2013.Google Scholar
Eisenstadt, Michael. “Who Rules Syria? Bashar al-Asad and the Alawi Barons.” Policy Watch, report no. 472. Washington Institute for Near East Policy, June 21, 2000. www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/who-rules-syria-bashar-al-asad-and-the-alawi-barons. Accessed June 22, 2018.Google Scholar
Eisenstadt, Michael “Syria’s Defense Companies: Profile of a Praetorian Unit.” Unpublished paper, 1984.Google Scholar
El-Kikhia, Mansour O. Libya’s Qaddafi: The Politics of Contradiction. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 1997.Google Scholar
El-Materi, Moncef. De Saint-Cyr au Peleton d’Execution de Bourguiba. Tunis: Arabesques, 2014.Google Scholar
El-Shimy, Yasser. “Unveiling the Gun: Why Praetorian Armies Decide to Rule, the Case of Egypt (2011–2013).” PhD diss., Boston University, 2016.Google Scholar
European Union. Official Journal of the European Union 54. Decision 2011/273/CFSP, Annex of articles I and IV, June 24, 2011.Google Scholar
Fadl, Bilal. “Al-Sadat wa-Ma Adraka Ma al-Sadat,” part 4. Al-ʿArabi al-Jadid, December 30, 2015. www.alaraby.co.uk/opinion/2015/12/30/السادات-وما-أدراك-ما-السادات-4. Accessed January 27, 2016.Google Scholar
Fahmi, Faruq. Iʿtirafat Shams Badran wa-Muʾamarat 67. Cairo: Muʾassasat Amun al-Haditha, 1989.Google Scholar
Farcau, Bruce W. The Transition to Democracy in Latin America: The Role of the Military. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1996.Google Scholar
Farcau, Bruce W. The Coup Tactics in the Seizure of Power. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994.Google Scholar
Faruq, ʿAbdul-Khaleq. Iqtisadiyyat al-Fasad fi Masr: Kayfa Jara Ifsad Masr wa-l-Masriyyin, 1974–2010. Cairo: al-Shorooq International Bookshop, 2010.Google Scholar
Faruq, ʿAbdul-Khaleq Judhur al-Fasad al-Idari fi Masr, Biʾat al-ʿAmal wa-Siasat al-Ujur wa-l-Murattabat fi Masr, 1963–2002. Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 2008.Google Scholar
Fawzi, Mohammad. Al-Nabawi Ismaʿil wa-Juzur Hadithat al-Minassa. Cairo: Dar al-Nashr Haitieh, 1991.Google Scholar
Fawzi, Mohammad Harb al-Sanawat al-Thalath, 1967–1970, Mudhakkarat al-Fariq, Mohammad Fawzi Wazir al-Harbiyya al-Asbaq. Cairo: Dar al-Wihda, 1988.Google Scholar
Feaver, Peter D. Armed Servants: Agency, Oversight, and Civil–Military Relations. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Ferris, Jesse. Nasser’s Gamble: How Intervention in Yemen Caused the Six-Day War and the Decline of Egyptian Power. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013.Google Scholar
Fikri, Amira. Al-Mushir Mohammad ʿAbdul-Halim Abu Ghazalah, Masirat Hayat. Cairo: Dar al-Jumhuriyya, 2010.Google Scholar
Finer, Samuel E. The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Fisk, Robert. “As Mubarak Clings On … What Now for Egypt.” The Independent, February 11, 2011. www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/fisk/robert-fisk-as-mubarak-clings-on-what-now-for-egypt-2211287.html. Accessed June 5, 2013.Google Scholar
Frisch, Hillel. “The Egyptian Army and Egypt’s ‘Spring.’” Journal of Strategic Studies 36, no. 2 (April 2013): 180204.Google Scholar
Frisch, HillelGuns and Butter in the Egyptian Army.” Middle East Review of International Affairs 5, no. 2 (Summer 2001): 112.Google Scholar
Galey, Patrick. “Why the Egyptian Military Fears a Captains’ Revolt.” Foreign Policy, February 16, 2012. http://foreignpolicy.com/2012/02/16/why-the-egyptian-military-fears-a-captains-revolt/. Accessed November 28, 2014.Google Scholar
Galey, Patrick “Soldiers of Conscience.” Foreign Policy, January 24, 2011. https://foreignpolicy.com/2012/01/24/soldiers-of-conscience/. Accessed March 15, 2019.Google Scholar
Gallad, Magdi (ed.). Mushir al-Nasr, Mudhakkarat Ahmad Ismaʿel, Wazir al-Harbiyya fi Maʿrakat October 1973. Cairo: Dar Nahdat Masr, 2013.Google Scholar
Gambill, Gary C.The Political Obstacles to Economic Reform in Syria.” Middle East Intelligence Bulletin 3, no. 7 (July 2011). www.shrc.org/en/?p=19864. Accessed May 26, 2017.Google Scholar
Gambill, Gary C.Syria after Lebanon: Hooked on Lebanon.” The Middle East Quarterly 12, no. 4 (Fall 2005). www.meforum.org/articles/2005/syria-after-lebanon-hooked-on-lebanon. Accessed June 22, 2018.Google Scholar
Garside, Juliette, and Pegg, David. “Mossack Fonseca Serviced Assad Cousin’s Firms Despite Syria Corruption Fears.” The Guardian, April 5, 2016. www.theguardian.com/news/2016/apr/05/mossack-fonseca-panama-papers-rami-makhlouf-syria-assad-hsbc. Accessed May 29, 2016.Google Scholar
Gaub, Florence. Guardians of the Arab State: When Militaries Intervene in Politics, from Iraq to Mauritania. London: Hurst & Company, 2017.Google Scholar
Gaub, Florence “An Unhappy Marriage: Civil–Military Relations in Post-Saddam Iraq.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, January 13, 2016. http://carnegieendowment.org/2016/01/13/unhappy-marriage-civil-military-relations-in-post-saddam-iraq/im00. Accessed February 20, 2016.Google Scholar
Gaub, FlorenceThe Libyan Armed Forces between Coup-Proofing and Repression.” Journal of Strategic Studies 36, no. 2 (2013): 221244.Google Scholar
Gause III, F. Gregory. “Why Middle East Studies Missed the Arab Spring: The Myth of Authoritarian Stability.” Foreign Affairs 90, no.4 (July/August 2011): 8190.Google Scholar
Geddes, Barbara. “Why Parties and Elections in Authoritarian Regimes?” Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Los Angeles, 2006.Google Scholar
Geddes, BarbaraWhat Do We Know about Democratization after Twenty Years.” Annual Review of Political Science 2 (June 1999): 115144.Google Scholar
Geddes, Barbara, Wright, Joseph, and Frantz, Erica. “Autocratic Breakdowns and Regime Transitions: A New Data Set.” Perspectives on Politics 12, no. 2 (June 2014): 313331.Google Scholar
Geddes, Barbara, Frantz, Erica, and Wright, Joseph. “Military Rule.” Annual Review of Political Science 17 (May 2014): 147162.Google Scholar
Ghadabian, Najib. “The New Asad: Dynamics of Continuity and Change in Syria.” Middle East Journal 55, no. 4 (Autumn 2001): 624641.Google Scholar
Gilsinan, Kathy. “How Syria’s Uprising Spawned a Jihad.” The Atlantic, March 16, 2016. www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/03/syria-civil-war-five-years/474006/. Accessed July 11, 2018.Google Scholar
Goemans, Henk E.Which Way Out? The Manner and Consequences of Losing Office.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 52, no. 6 (December 2008): 771794.Google Scholar
Goemans, Henk E., Gleditsch, Kristian Skrede, and Chiozza, Giacomo. “Introducing Archigos: A Dataset of Political Leaders.” Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 2 (March 2009): 269283.Google Scholar
Geisser, Vincent, and Krefa, Abir. “L’uniforme ne fait plus le régime, les militaires arabes face aux revolutions.” Revue Internationale Stratégique 3, no. 83 (2011): 93102.Google Scholar
Greitens, Sheena Chestnut. Dictators and Their Secret Police: Coercive Institutions and State Violence. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Grewal, Sharan. “A Quiet Revolution: The Tunisian Military after Ben Ali ‘Ben ʿAli, Zein al-ʿAbidin.’” Carnegie Regional Insight, February 24, 2016. https://carnegieendowment.org/2016/02/24/quiet-revolution-tunisian-military-after-ben-ali-pub-62780. Accessed October 23, 2018.Google Scholar
Grewal, Sharan “To Coup or Not to Coup: The Tunisian Military in 2013.” Paper presented at the 2016 annual meeting for the Middle East Studies Association.Google Scholar
Grieb, Kenneth J.The Guatemalan Military and the Revolution of 1944.” The Americas 32, no. 4 (April 1976): 524543.Google Scholar
Grimaud, Nicole. La Tunisie a la recherche de sa securité. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1995.Google Scholar
Gubser, Peter. “Minorities in Power: The Alawites of Syria.” In The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East, edited by McLaurin, R. D., 3741. New York: Praeger, 1979.Google Scholar
Gurr, Ted Robert. Why Men Rebel. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970.Google Scholar
Haddad, Bassam. Business Networks in Syria: The Political Economy of Authoritarian Resilience. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Haddad, BassamChange and Stasis in Syria: One Step Forward.” Middle East Report 213, Millennial Middle East: Changing Orders, Shifting Borders (Winter 1999): 2327.Google Scholar
Haddad, Bassam “The Economic Price of Regime Security: Mistrust, State-Business Networks, and Economic Stagnation in Syria, 1986–2000.” PhD diss., Georgetown University, 2002.Google Scholar
Haddad, Said. “The Role of the Libyan Army in the Revolt against Gaddafi’s Regime.” Al Jazeera Center for Studies, March 16, 2011.Google Scholar
Hammad, ʿAbdul-ʿAzim. “Alladhin idha Hakamu Dawla Afsaduha: Wahm al-Istiqrar wa-l-Injaz fi Dawlat Yulyu.” Mada Masr, September 2, 2016. https://madamasr.com/ar/2016/09/02/opinion/u/الذين-إذا-حكموا-دولة-أفسدوها-1-وهم-الاس/. Accessed September 2, 2016.Google Scholar
Hammad, ʿAbdul-ʿAzim Al-Thawra al-Taʾiha, Siraʿ al-Khudha, wa-l-Lihia, wa-l-Midan, Ruʾyat Shahid ʿAyan. Cairo: al-Mahrousa, 2013.Google Scholar
Hammad, Jamal. Asrar Thawrat 23 Yulyu, vol. 2. Cairo: Dar al-ʿUlum, 2011.Google Scholar
Hammad, JamalQissat al-Siraʿ ʿala al-Sulta bayna Mohammad Neguib wa-ʿAbdul Nasser.” In Man Yaktob Tarik Thawrat Yulyu, al-Qadiyya wa-l-Shahadat, edited by Juaida, Faruq. Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 2009.Google Scholar
Hammuda, ʿAdel. Ightial Raʾis, bi-l-Wathaʾiq, Asrar Ightial Anwar al-Sadat. Cairo: Dar Iqraʾ, 1985.Google Scholar
Hamrush, Ahmad. Thawrat Yulyu. Cairo: al-Hayʾa al-Markaziyya li-l-Kitab, 1992.Google Scholar
Hani Metwalli, Mohammad (Major General). Interview on Al-Masry al-Yawm, April 10, 2016. www.almasryalyoum.com/news/details/926329. Accessed April 10, 2016.Google Scholar
Hanlon, Querine. “Security Sector Reform in Tunisia, a Year after the Jasmine Revolution.” United States Institute of Peace, report no. 304, March 2012. www.usip.org/sites/default/files/SR304.pdf. Accessed April 5, 2016.Google Scholar
Harb, Imad. “The Egyptian Military in Politics: Disengagement or Accommodation.” Middle East Journal 57, no. 2 (Spring 2003): 269290.Google Scholar
Hasan ʿAli, Kamal. Mashawir al-ʿOmr fi al-Harb wa-l-Mukhabarat wa-l-Siasa, Asrar wa-Khafaya 70 Aman min ʿOmr Masr. Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 1994.Google Scholar
Hasan, Yusuf Fadl. “The Sudanese Revolution of October 1964.” Journal of Modern African Studies 5, no. 4 (1967): 491509.Google Scholar
Hashem, Ahmad. “Al-Jaysh wa-l-Dawla fi Masr: Tashabok al-ʿAskari wa-l-Madani.” Al Jazeera Center for Strategic Studies, June 1, 2015. http://studies.aljazeera.net/ar/reports/2015/05/201553111285692330.html. Accessed July 7, 2015.Google Scholar
Hashim, Ahmed S. “‘The Man on Horseback’: The Role of the Military in the Arab Revolutions and in Their Aftermaths, 2011–2015.” Middle East Perspectives 7 (October 2015): 132. www.researchgate.net/publication/313739034_The_Man_on_Horseback_The_Role_of_the_Military_in_the_Arab_Revolutions_and_in_their_Aftermaths.Google Scholar
Hashim, Ahmed S.The Egyptian Military, Part Two: From Mubarak Onward.” Middle East Policy Council 18, no. 4 (Winter 2011). www.mepc.org/egyptian-military-part-two-mubarak-onward. Accessed March 3, 2015.Google Scholar
Hashim, Ahmed S.The Egyptian Military, Part One: From the Ottomans through Sadat.” Middle East Policy Council 18, no. 3 (Fall 2011). www.mepc.org/journal/middle-east-policy-archives/egyptian-military-part-one-ottomans-through-sadat. Accessed April 16, 2015.Google Scholar
Hedges, Chris. “Qaddafi Reported to Quash Army Revolt.” The New York Times, October 23, 1993. www.nytimes.com/1993/10/23/world/qaddafi-reported-to-quash-army-revolt.html. Accessed December 2, 2018.Google Scholar
Heikal, Mohammad Hasanein. Kharif al-Ghadab, Qissat Bidayat wa-Nihayat ʿAsr Anwar al-Sadat. Cairo: Markaz al-Ahram li-l-Tarjama wa-l-Nashr, 1988.Google Scholar
Heinecken, Lindy. “Discontent within the Ranks? Officers’ Attitudes toward Military Employment and Representation – A Four-Country Comparative Study.” Armed Forces & Society 35, no. 3 (April 2009): 477500.Google Scholar
Henry, Clement, and Springborg, Robert. “The Tunisian Army: Defending the Beachhead of Democracy in the Arab World.” Huffpost, January 26, 2011. www.huffingtonpost.com/clement-m-henry/the-tunisian-army-defendi_b_814254.html. Accessed August 25, 2018.Google Scholar
Herspring, Dale R., and Volgyes, Ivan. Civil–Military Relations in Communist Systems. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1978.Google Scholar
Hessler, Peter. “Egypt’s Failed Revolution.” The New Yorker, January 2, 2017. www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/01/02/egypts-failed-revolution. Accessed January 2, 2017.Google Scholar
Hibou, Béatrice. The Force of Obedience: The Political Economy of Repression in Tunis. Malden MA: Polity, 2011.Google Scholar
Hill, Evan, and Mansour, Muhammad. “Egypt’s Army Took Part in Torture and Killings during Revolution, Report Shows.” The Guardian, April 10, 2013. www.theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/10/egypt-army-torture-killings-revolution. Accessed January 18, 2014.Google Scholar
Hinnebusch, Raymond A.Understanding Regime Divergence in the Post-uprising Arab State.” Journal of Historical Sociology 31, no. 1 (2018): 4243. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/johs.12190. Accessed July 3, 2018.Google Scholar
Hinnebusch, Raymond A.Syria: From ‘Authoritarian Upgrading’ to Revolution.” International Affairs 88, no. 1 (January 2012): 95113.Google Scholar
Hinnebusch, Raymond A. Egyptian Politics under Sadat: The Post-populist Development of an Authoritarian-Modernizing State. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1988.Google Scholar
Hinnebusch, Raymond A.Libya: Personalistic Leadership of a Populist Revolution.” In Political Elites in Arab North Africa, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt, edited by Zartman, I. William, Tessler, Mark A., Entelis, John P., Stone, Russel A., Hinnebusch, Raymond A., and Akhavi, Shahrough, 177222. New York: Longman, 1982.Google Scholar
Hinnebusch, Raymond A.Egypt under Sadat: Elites, Power Structure, and Political Change in a Post-populist State.” Social Problems 28, no. 4 (April 1981): 442464.Google Scholar
Hlaing, Kyaw Yin. “Setting Rules for Survival: Why the Burmese Military Regime Survives in an Age of Democratization.” The Pacific Review 22, no. 3 (July 2009): 271291.Google Scholar
Holliday, Joseph. “The Assad Regime: From Counterinsurgency to Civil War.” Middle East Security 8, Institute for the Study of War (March 2013): 759.Google Scholar
Holliday, JosephThe Struggle for Syria in 2011: An Operational and Regional Analysis.” Middle East Security 2, Institute for the Study of War (December 2011): 129.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. “Syria: ‘By All Means Necessary!’ Individual and Command Responsibility for Crimes Against Humanity in Syria,” December 2011. www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/syria1211webwcover_0.pdf. Accessed June 12, 2014.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch “Syria: We’ve Never Seen Such Horror, Crimes against Humanity by Syrian Security Forces.” New York: Human Rights Watch, June 2011.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch “Egypt: Investigate Arrests of Activists, Journalists.” February 9, 2011. www.hrw.org/news/2011/02/09/egypt-investigate-arrests-activists-journalists. Accessed January 12, 2014.Google Scholar
Hunter, Wendy. Eroding Military Influence in Brazil: Politicians against Soldiers. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Huntington, Samuel. The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.Google Scholar
Huntington, Samuel The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil–Military Relations. New York: Vintage Books, 1957.Google Scholar
Hurewitz, J. C. Middle East Politics: The Military Dimension. New York: Praeger, 1969.Google Scholar
Husni, Mohammad. “Durus Mustafada min al-Tasribat … Mujaz Hal al-Dawla al-Masriyya.” Noon Post, December 6, 2014. www.noonpost.org/content/4595. Accessed December 10, 2014.Google Scholar
Huweidi, Amine. Al-Foras al-Daʾiʿa, al-Qararat al-Hasima fi Harbay al-Istinzaf wa-October. Beirut: al-Sharika al-ʿArabiyya li-l-Tawziʿ wa-l-Nashr, 1992.Google Scholar
Imam, ʿAbdallah. Al-Fariq Mohammad Fawzi, al-Naksa, al-Istinzaf, al-Sijn. Cairo: Dar al-Khayyal, 2001.Google Scholar
Imam, ʿAbdallah Salah Nasr Yatadhakkar, al-Thawra, al-Mukhabarat, al-Naksa. Cairo: Dar al-Khayyal, 1999.Google Scholar
Imam, ʿAbdallah Haqiqat al-Sadat. Cairo: Muʾassassat Rose al-Youssef li-l-Sahafa wa-l-Tibaʿa wa-l-Nashr, 1986.Google Scholar
International Crisis Group. “Yemen’s Military-Security Reform: Seeds of New Conflict?” Middle East and North Africa report no. 139. April 4, 2013. https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/yemens-military-security-reform-seeds-of-new-conflict.pdf. Accessed June 5, 2015.Google Scholar
International Crisis Group “Tunisie: Lutter Contre L’Impunite, Restaurer La Securite.” Middle East and North Africa report no. 129, May 9, 2012. www.files.ethz.ch/isn/142694/123-tunisie-lutter-contre-l-impunite-restaurer-la-securite.pdf. Accessed June 15, 2016.Google Scholar
International Crisis Group “Lost in Transition: The World according to Egypt’s SCAF.” Middle East and North Africa report no. 121, April 24, 2012. www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/north-africa/egypt/lost-transition-world-according-egypt-s-scaf. Accessed February 5, 2014.Google Scholar
International Crisis Group “Popular Protest in North Africa and the Middle East (V): Making Sense of Libya.” Middle East and North Africa report no. 107, June 6, 2011. www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/north-africa/libya/popular-protest-north-africa-and-middle-east-v-making-sense-libya. Accessed January 5, 2013.Google Scholar
International Crisis Group “Popular Protests in North Africa and the Middle East (IV): Tunisia’s Way.” Middle East and North Africa report no. 106, April 28, 2011. www.crisisgroup.org/file/1560/download?token=u5P7yh_T. Accessed August 6, 2016.Google Scholar
International Crisis Group “Popular Protest in North Africa and throughout the Middle East: Egypt Victorious?” Middle East and North Africa report no. 101, February 24, 2011. https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/101-popular-protest-in-north-africa-and-the-middle-east-I-egypt-victorious.pdf. Accessed March 7, 2015.Google Scholar
Ismail, Salwa. The Rule of Violence: Subjectivity, Memory and Government in Syria. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2018.Google Scholar
Ismail, SalwaThe Egyptian Revolution against the Police.” Social Research 79, no. 2 (Summer 2012): 435462.Google Scholar
Janowitz, Morris. Military Institutions and Coercion in the Developing Nations. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1977.Google Scholar
Jebnoun, Noureddine. “In the Shadow of Power: Civil–Military Relations and the Tunisian Popular Uprising.” Journal of North African Studies 19, no. 3 (2014): 296316.Google Scholar
Jenkins, David. Suharto and His Generals: Indonesian Military Politics, 1975–1983. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984.Google Scholar
Kamal, ʿAbdul-Rahman. “130 Alf Jineih Towazaʾ ʿala al-Dubbat wa-l-Umanaʾ al-Moqarrabin Yawmiyyan … wa-Musaʿed al-Wazir li-l-Shuʾun al-Maliyya Yataqada 7 Malayin Shahriyyan.” Al-Shaʿab, November 26, 2013. https://travel-alone.xyz/?ts_id=1. Accessed April 3, 2020.Google Scholar
Kamal, Ashraf. “Al-Fasad Yadrub Diwan ʿAam al-Minia.” Al-Wafd, February 3, 2016. https://alwafd.news/المحافظـات/1037107-الفساد-يضرب-ديوان-عام-المنيا. Accessed February 3, 2016.Google Scholar
Kamil, Mustafa. “Infirad ‘al-Rijal’ Yahki Qissat Awwal Inqilab ʿAskari Islami ʿala al-Sadat.” Mobtada, April 3, 2015. www.mobtada.com/news_details.php?ID=313387. Accessed April 15, 2015.Google Scholar
Kamrava, Mehran. “Military Professionalization and Civil–Military Relations in the Middle East.” Political Science Quarterly 115, no. 1 (Spring 2000): 6792.Google Scholar
Kandil, Hazem. The Power Triangle: Military, Security, and Politics in Regime Change. New York: Oxford University Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Kandil, HazemBack on Horse? The Military between Two Revolutions.” In Arab Spring in Egypt: Revolution and Beyond, edited by Korany, Bahgat and El-Mahdi, Rabab, 175198. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Kandil, Hazem Soldiers, Spies, and Statesmen: Egypt’s Road to Revolt. New York: Verso Books, 2012.Google Scholar
Kanovsky, Eliyahu. “Syria’s Troubled Economic Future.” Middle East Quarterly 4, no. 2 (June 1997). www.meforum.org/articles/other/syria-s-troubled-economic-future. Accessed May 29, 2018.Google Scholar
Kårtveit, Bård, and Jumbert, Maria Gabrielsen. “Civil–Military Relations in the Middle East: A Literature Review.” Working paper 2014:5, Chr. Michelsen Institute, June 2014, 124. www.cmi.no/publications/file/5188-civil-military-relations-in-the-middle-east.pdf. Accessed January 15, 2015.Google Scholar
Kechichian, Joseph, and Nazimek, Jeanne. “Challenges to the Military in Egypt.” Middle East Policy Council 5, no. 3 (September 1997). www.mepc.org/challenges-military-egypt. Accessed July 12, 2017.Google Scholar
Ketchley, Neil. “The Army and the People Are One Hand! Fraternization and the 25th January Egyptian Revolution.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 56, no. 1 (January 2014): 174175.Google Scholar
Khaddour, Khader. “Strength in Weakness: The Syrian Army’s Accidental Resilience.” Carnegie Middle East Center: Regional Insight, March 14, 2016. http://carnegie-mec.org/2016/03/14/strength-in-weakness-syrian-army-s-accidental-resilience-pub-62968. Accessed May 29, 2018.Google Scholar
Khaddour, Khader “Assad’s Officer Ghetto: Why the Syrian Army Remains Loyal.” Carnegie Middle East Center: Regional Insight, November 4, 2015. http://carnegie-mec.org/2015/11/04/assad-s-officer-ghetto-why-syrian-army-remains-loyal-pub-61449. Accessed May 31, 2018.Google Scholar
Khaddour, Khader (writing under the pseudonym ʿAziz Nakkash). “The Alawite Dilemma in Homs: Survival, Solidarity, and the Making of a Community.” Friedrich Ebert Stiftung Institute, March 2013, 118. http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/09825.pdf. Accessed August 1, 2018.Google Scholar
Khadduri, Majid. “The Role of the Military in Middle East Politics.” The American Political Science Review 47, no. 2 (June 1953): 511524.Google Scholar
Khadduri, MajidThe Coup D’État of 1936: A Study in Iraqi Politics.” Middle East Journal 2, no. 3 (July 1948): 270292.Google Scholar
Khaled, Kamal. Rijal ʿAbdul Nasser wa-l-Sadat. Cairo: Dar al-ʿAdala, 1986.Google Scholar
Khaled, Leila. “Fasad al-Shorta fi Masr … Khams Turuq li-Isitighlal al-Muwatinin.” Al-ʿArabi al-Jadid, May 30, 2016. www.alaraby.co.uk/investigations/2016/5/30/فساد-الشرطة-في-مصر-5-طرق-لاستغلال-المواطنين. Accessed June 1, 2016.Google Scholar
King Hussein of Jordan. Uneasy Lies the Head: The Autobiography of His Majesty King Hussein I of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. New York: Random House, 1962.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, David D. “The White House and the Strongman.” The New York Times, July 27, 2018. www.nytimes.com/2018/07/27/sunday-review/obama-egypt-coup-trump.html. Accessed August 16, 2018.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, David D. “Tribal Ties, Long Qaddafi’s Strength, May Be His Undoing.” The New York Times, March 14, 2011. www.nytimes.com/2011/03/15/world/africa/15tribes.html. Accessed June 13, 2016.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, David D. “Egyptians Say Military Discourages an Open Economy.” The New York Times, February 17, 2011. www.nytimes.com/2011/02/18/world/middleeast/18military.html. Accessed January 8, 2016.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, David D. “Mubarak’s Grip On Power Is Shaken.” The New York Times, January 31, 2011. www.nytimes.com/2011/02/01/world/middleeast/01egypt.html. Accessed on March 5, 2014.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, David D. “Mubarak Orders Crackdown, with Revolt Sweeping Egypt.” The New York Times, January 28, 2011. www.nytimes.com/2011/01/29/world/middleeast/29unrest.html. Accessed March 27, 2014.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, David D., and Fahim, Kareem. “Rebels in Libya Gain Power and Defectors.” The New York Times, February 27, 2011. www.nytimes.com/2011/02/28/world/africa/28unrest.html. Accessed December 15, 2018.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, David D., and Fahim, Kareem “Mubarak’s Allies and Foes Clash in Egypt.” The New York Times, February 2, 2011. www.nytimes.com/2011/02/03/world/middleeast/03egypt.html. Accessed January 18, 2014.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, David D., and El-Naggar, Mona. “Protest’s Old Guard Falls In behind the Young.” The New York Times, January 30, 2011. www.nytimes.com/2011/01/31/world/middleeast/31opposition.html. Accessed January 15, 2013.Google Scholar
Knights, Michael. “The Military Role in Yemen’s Protest: Civil–Military Relation in the Tribal Republic.” Journal of Strategic Studies 36, no. 2 (2013): 261288.Google Scholar
Koehler, Kevin. “Political Militaries in Popular Uprisings: A Comparative Perspective on the Arab Spring.” International Political Science Review 38, no. 3 (2017): 363377.Google Scholar
Koehler, KevinOfficers and Regimes: The Historical Origins of Political–Military Relations in Middle Eastern Republics.” In Armies and Insurgencies in the Arab Spring, edited by Albrecht, Holger, Croissant, Aurel, and Lawson, Fred H., 3453. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Kormanaev, Anatoly, and Herrera, Isayen. “Venezuela’s Maduro Cracks Down on His Own Military in Bid to Retain Power.” The New York Times, August 13, 2019. www.nytimes.com/2019/08/13/world/americas/venezuela-military-maduro.html. Accessed August 13, 2019.Google Scholar
L. S. “Continuing Business by Other Means: Egypt’s Military Economy.” Mute, May 30, 2014. www.metamute.org/editorial/articles/continuing-business-other-means-egypts-military-economy. Accessed April 17, 2015.Google Scholar
Lacouture, Jean. The Demigods: Charismatic Leadership in the Third World. New York: Alfred Knopf, 1970.Google Scholar
Lakzani, Alimar, and Gutman, Roy. “In Tartous, Syria, Women Wear Black, Youth Are in Hiding, and Bitterness Grows.” The Nation, May 15, 2017. www.thenation.com/article/in-tartous-syria-women-wear-black-youth-are-in-hiding-and-bitterness-grows/. Accessed July 5, 2018.Google Scholar
Landis, Joshua. “A Great Sorting Out: The Future of Minorities in the Middle East.” Interview by Al Noor staff (Spring 2016). www.bcalnoor.org/single-post/2016/09/03/A-Great-Sorting-Out-The-Future-of-Minorities-in-the-Middle-East. Accessed July 7, 2017.Google Scholar
Landis, Joshua “Zahran ʿAllush: His Ideology and Beliefs.” Syria Comment, December 15, 2013. www.joshualandis.com/blog/zahran-alloush/. Accessed July 11, 2018.Google Scholar
Larcher, Wolfram. “Families, Tribes and Cities in the Libyan Revolution.” Middle East Policy 18, no. 4 (Winter 2011): 140154.Google Scholar
Lee, Terence. Defect or Defend: Military Responses to Popular Protests in Authoritarian Asia. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Lee, TerenceThe Armed Forces and Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Explaining the Role of the Military in 1986 Philippines and 1998 Indonesia.” Comparative Political Studies 42, no. 5 (2009): 640669.Google Scholar
Lee, TerenceMilitary Cohesion and Regime Maintenance: Explaining the Role of the Military in 1989 China and 1988 Indonesia.” Armed Forces & Society 32, no. 1 (October 2005): 80104.Google Scholar
Leenders, Reinoud. Spoils of Truth: Corruption and State-building in Postwar Lebanon. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Lewis, Andrew L. “The Revolt of the Admirals.” Air Command and Staff College/Air University, April 1998. www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/acsc/98–166.pdf. Accessed June 15, 2014.Google Scholar
Linz, Juan J., and Stepan, Alfred. Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Lipman, Thomas W. Egypt after Nasser: Sadat, Peace, and the Mirage of Prosperity. St. Paul, MN: Paragon House, 1989.Google Scholar
Londregan, John B., and Poole, Keith T.. “Poverty, the Coup Trap, and the Seizure of Executive Power.” World Politics 42, no. 2 (January 1990): 151183.Google Scholar
Luckham, Robin. “The Military and Democratization in Africa: A Survey of Literature and Issues.” African Studies Review 37, no. 2 (September 1994): 1375.Google Scholar
Lund, Aron. “A Voice from the Shadows.” Diwan, November 25, 2016. https://carnegie-mec.org/diwan/66240. Accessed July 7, 2018.Google Scholar
Lutterbeck, Derek. “Tool of Rule: the Tunisian Police under Ben Ali ‘Ben ʿAli, Zein al-ʿAbidin.’” Journal of North African Studies 20, no. 5 (2015): 813831.Google Scholar
Lutterbeck, DerekArab Uprisings, Armed Forces, and Civil–Military Relations.” Armed Forces & Society 39, no. 1 (2013): 2852.Google Scholar
Lutterbeck, Derek “After the Fall: Security Sector Reform in post-Ben Ali ‘Ben ʿAli, Zein al-ʿAbidin’ Tunisia.” Arab Reform Initiative (ARI), September 2012. www.arab-reform.net/en/node/592. Accessed June 12, 2018.Google Scholar
Lutterbeck, Derek “Arab Uprisings and Armed Forces: Between Openness and Resistance.” Geneva Center for the Democratic Control of Armed, 2011. www.ubiquitypress.com/site/books/10.5334/bbm/. Accessed December 5, 2018.Google Scholar
Luttwak, Edward. Coup d’État: A Practical Handbook. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979.Google Scholar
Lynch, Marc. The New Arab Wars: Uprisings and Anarchy in the Middle East. New York: PublicAffairs, 2016.Google Scholar
Macleod, Hugh, and Flamand, Anna-Sofie. “Inside Syria’s Shabiha Death Squads.” The Star, June 15, 2012. www.thestar.com/news/world/2012/06/15/inside_syrias_shabiha_death_squads.html. Accessed July 8, 2018.Google Scholar
Makara, Michael. “Rethinking Military Behavior during the Arab Spring.” Defense & Security Analysis 32, no.3 (2016): 209223.Google Scholar
Makara, MichaelCoup-Proofing, Military Defection, and the Arab Spring.” Democracy and Security 9, no. 4 (2013): 334359.Google Scholar
Makhluf, Mohammad. “Man Hom Rijal al-Khayma al-ladhin Yudirun al-Nidham al-Libi.” Al-Majalla, August 23, 1988. http://archive.libya-al-mostakbal.org/Archives/mo3aredoon/almajalla1993/almajalla_aug93_libya02.html. Accessed November 15, 2018.Google Scholar
Malbrunot, Georges. “60.000 centurious Alaouites protègent le clan Assad.” Le Figaro, July 31, 2011. www.lefigaro.fr/international/2011/07/31/01003-20110731ARTFIG00201-60000-centurions-alaouites-protegent-le-clan-assad.php. Accessed July 16, 2016.Google Scholar
Mandraud, Isabell. “Peut-être on partira, mais on brûlera Tunis.” Le Monde, January 17, 2011. www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2011/01/17/peut-etre-on-partira-mais-on-brulera-tunis_1466502_3212.html. Accessed October 8, 2018.Google Scholar
Marroushi, Nadine. “US Expert: Leadership of ‘Military Inc.’ Is Running Egypt.” Egypt Independent, October 26, 2011. www.egyptindependent.com/us-expert-leadership-military-inc-running-egypt. Accessed July 22, 2017.Google Scholar
Marshall, Jonathan V. The Lebanese Connection: Corruption, Civil War, and the International Drug Traffic. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Marshall, Shana. “The Egyptian Armed Forces and the Remaking of an Economic Empire.” Carnegie Middle East Center, April 15, 2015. http://carnegie-mec.org/2015/04/15/egyptian-armed-forces-and-remaking-of-economic-empire-pub-59726. Accessed April 30, 2015.Google Scholar
Marshall, Shana, and Stacher, Joshua. “Egypt’s Generals and Transnational Capital.” Middle East Research and Information Project 262 (Spring 2012). www.merip.org/mer/mer262/egypts-generals-transnational-capital. Accessed June 25, 2015.Google Scholar
Masoud, Tarek. “The Upheavals in Egypt and Tunisia: The Road to (and from) Liberation Square.” Journal of Democracy 22, no. 3 (July 2011): 2034.Google Scholar
Mattes, Hanspeter. “Formal and Informal Authority in Libya since 1969.” In Libya Since 1969: Qadhafi’s Revolution Revisited, edited by Vanderwalle, Dirk, 7476. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.Google Scholar
McAdam, Doug. “Conceptual Origins, Current Problems, Future Directions.” In Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings, edited by McAdam, Doug, McCarthy, John D., and Zald, Mayer N., 2340. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
McAdam, Doug, McCarthy, John D., and Zald, Mayer N. (eds.). Comparative Perspectives Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
McCoy, Alfred. Closer than Brothers: Manhood at the Philippine Military Academy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999.Google Scholar
McLauchlin, Theodore. “Loyalty Strategies and Military Defection in Rebellion.” Comparative Politics 42, no. 3 (April 2010): 333350.Google Scholar
McLauchlin, TheodoreThe Loyalty Trap: Regime Ethnic Exclusion, Commitment Problems, and Civil War Duration in Syria and Beyond.” Security Studies 27, no. 2 (2018): 296317.Google Scholar
Mekouar, Merouan. “Police Collapse in Authoritarian Regimes: Lessons from Tunisia.” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 40, no. 10 (2017): 857869.Google Scholar
Middle East Insider. “Syria: Narcotics Center of the Middle East.” Middle East Insider Report 16, no. 38 (1989).www.larouchepub.com/eiw/public/1989/eirv16n38-19890921/eirv16n38-19890921_032-syria_narcotics_center_of_the_mi.pdf. Accessed May 7, 2017.Google Scholar
Middle East Watch. Syria Unmasked: The Suppression of Human Rights by the Asad Regime. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991.Google Scholar
Mietzner, Marcus. Military Politics, Islam, and the State in Indonesia: From Turbulent Transition to Democratic Consolidation. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2009.Google Scholar
Migdal, Joel. Strong Societies and Weak States: State–Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988.Google Scholar
Mignot, Leïla. “Algérie: Pourquoi l’armée peut changer la donne.” L’Orient Le Jour, March 9, 2019. www.lorientlejour.com/article/1160857/pourquoi-larmee-peut-changer-la-donne.html?fbclid=IwAR2qsChQtQ1TEOsVoUkJDl8Ea1Q9qbuTfQLsXYBRNKSxc0AL2UyD4xCHcc4. Accessed March 9, 2019.Google Scholar
Moniquet, Claude, and Luksic, Vanja. “Armes, drogue, voitures: le traffic Syrien.” L’Express, May 8, 1987.Google Scholar
Moosa, Matti. Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1988.Google Scholar
Mora, Frank O., and Wiktorowicz, Quintan. “Economic Reform and the Military: China, Cuba, and Syria in Comparative Perspective.” International Journal of Comparative Sociology 44, no. 2 (April 2003): 87128.Google Scholar
Muhieddin, Khaled. Wa-l-Ana Atakallam. Cairo: Markaz al-Ahram li-l-Tarjama wa-l-Nashr, 1992.Google Scholar
Munck, Gerardo L., and Snyder, Richard. Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Mustafa, Khalil. Suqut al-Julan. Cairo: Dar al-Iʿtisam, 1980.Google Scholar
Nepstad, Sharon Erickson. Nonviolent Revolutions: Civil Resistance in the Late 20th Century. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Nordlinger, Eric A. Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1977.Google Scholar
Nutting, Anthony. Nasser. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1972.Google Scholar
O’Donnell, Guillermo, and Schmitter, Philippe. Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986.Google Scholar
Ohl, Dorothy, Albrecht, Holger, and Koehler, Kevin. “For Money or Liberty? The Political Economy of Military Desertion and Rebel Recruitment in the Syrian Civil War.” Carnegie Regional Insight, November 24, 2015. https://carnegieendowment.org/2015/11/24/for-money-or-liberty-political-economy-of-military-desertion-and-rebel-recruitment-in-syrian-civil-war-pub-61714. Accessed April 3, 2020.Google Scholar
ʿOmran, Mohammad. Tajribati fi al-Thawra. Beirut: Dar al-Jil li-l-Tabʿ wa-l-Nashr wa-l-Tawziʿ, 1970.Google Scholar
ʿOthman, Hashem. Tarikh Suria al-Hadith, ʿAhd Hafez al-Asad, 1971–2000. Beirut: Riad El-Rayyes Books, 2014.Google Scholar
Otis, John. “Veteran President’s Rift with Bolivian Military Helped Drive His Early Exit.” The Wall Street Journal, December 5, 2019. www.wsj.com/articles/veteran-presidents-rift-with-bolivian-military-helped-drive-his-early-exit-11575541801. Accessed December 5, 2019.Google Scholar
Ottaway, David B. “Syrian Connection to Terrorism Probed: ‘New and Very Disturbing’ Evidence.” The Washington Post, June 1, 1986. CIA approved for release May 4, 2012. www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP90-00965R000604900038-5.pdf. Accessed May 28, 2018.Google Scholar
Owen, Roger. The Rise and Fall of Arab Presidents for Life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Owen, RogerMilitary Presidents in Arab States.” The International Journal of Middle East Studies 43, no. 3 (August 2011): 395396.Google Scholar
Pachon, Alejandro. “Loyalty and Defection: Misunderstanding Civil–Military Relations in Tunisia during the Arab Spring.” The Journal of Strategic Studies 37, no. 4 (2014): 508531.Google Scholar
Parsons, William, and Taylor, William. “Arbiters of Social Unrest: Military Responses to the Arab Spring.” Report prepared for the US Military Academy (2011). https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a562816.pdf. Accessed November 7, 2018.Google Scholar
Paul, James A. Human Rights in Syria: A Middle East Watch Report. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1990. https://books.google.com/books?id=NxjxWYWnlwC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false. Accessed August 15, 2017.Google Scholar
Perthes, Volker. The Political Economy of Syria under Asad. New York: I.B. Tauris, 1995.Google Scholar
Philips, Christopher. “The World Abetted Asad’s Victory in Syria.” The Atlantic, August 4, 2018. www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2018/08/assad-victory-syria/566522/. Accessed August 14, 2018.Google Scholar
Philips, Sarah. Yemen’s Democracy Experiment in Regional Perspective: Patronage and Pluralized Authoritarianism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.Google Scholar
Pion-Berlin, David. “Military Relations in Comparative Perspective.” In Armies and Insurgencies in the Arab Spring, edited by Albrecht, Holger, Croissant, Aurel, and Lawson, Fred H., 733. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Pion-Berlin, David, Esparza, Diego, and Grisham, Kevin. “Staying Quartered: Civilian Uprisings and Military Disobedience in the Twenty-First Century.” Comparative Political Studies 47, no. 2 (2014): 230259.Google Scholar
Pion-Berlin, David, and Trinkunas, Harold. “Civilian Praetorianism and Military Shirking during Constitutional Crises in Latin America.” Comparative Politics 42, no. 4 (July 2010): 395411.Google Scholar
Pluta, Audrey. “Les relations civilo-militaires en Tunisie de l’indépendance a nous jours: l’armée entre soumission au pouvoir civil et nouveau rôle politique.” Master’s thesis, Institut d’Etudes Politiques, Aix-en-Provence, 2017.Google Scholar
Pluta, Audrey “Political–Military Relations and the Stability of Arab Regimes.” Adelphi Papers 324, International Institute for Strategic Studies. London: Oxford University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Powell, Jonathan. “Regime Vulnerability and the Diversionary Threat of Force.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 58, no. 1 (2014): 169196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Powell, Jonathan “Coups and Conflict: The Paradox of Coup-Proofing.” PhD diss., University of Kentucky, 2012. http://uknowledge.uky.edu/polysci_etds/3/. Accessed March 3, 2016.Google Scholar
Prieur, Denis. “Defend or Defect: Military Roles in Popular Revolts.” SSRN, December 15, 2011. http://ssrn.com/abstract=2115062. Accessed September 14, 2014.Google Scholar
“Protests in Egypt and Unrest in Middle East – As It Happened.” The Guardian, January 25, 2011. www.theguardian.com/global/blog/2011/jan/25/middleeast-tunisia. Accessed March 12, 2014.Google Scholar
Prothero, Mitchell. “Beirut Bombshell.” Fortune on CNN Money, May 4, 2006. http://money.cnn.com/2006/05/01/news/international/lebanon_fortune_051506/. Accessed May 30, 2018.Google Scholar
Przeworski, Adam. Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.Google Scholar
Quinlivan, James T.Coup-Proofing: Its Practice and Consequences in the Middle East.” International Security 24, no. 2 (Autumn 1999): 131165.Google Scholar
Rabinovich, Itamar. “The Compact Minorities and the Syrian State, 1918–45.” Journal of Contemporary History 14, no. 4 (October 1979): 693712.Google Scholar
Rabinovich, Itamar Syria under the Baʿath, 1963–1966: The Army–Party Symbiosis. Jerusalem: Israel University Press, 1972.Google Scholar
Raphaeli, Nimrod. “Egyptian Army’s Pervasive Role in National Economy.” The Middle East Media Research Institute, Inquiry and Analysis Series no. 1001, July 29, 2013. www.memri.org/reports/egyptian-armys-pervasive-role-national-economy. Accessed April 5, 2015.Google Scholar
Rathmell, Andrew. “Syria’s Intelligence Services: Origins and Development.” The Journal of Conflict Studies 16, no. 2 (1996). https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/jcs/article/view/11815/12636. Accessed June 20, 2018.Google Scholar
Read, Christopher S. “Allegiance: Egypt Security Forces.” Master’s thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California, 2013. www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a620384.pdf. Accessed February 2, 2014.Google Scholar
Rémy, Jean-Philille. “Les manifestants au Sudan appellant désormais à la chute de la junte.” Le Monde, April 12, 2019. www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2019/04/12/les-manifestants-au-soudan-appellent-desormais-a-la-chute-de-la-junte_5449085_3212.html. Accessed April 12, 2019.Google Scholar
Riveria, Temario. “The Middle Class and Democratization in the Philippines: From the Asian Crisis to the Ouster of Estrada.” In Southeast Asian Middle Classes: Prospects for Social Change and Democratization, edited by Abdul Rahman, Embong, 230261. Bangi: National University of Malaysia, 2001.Google Scholar
Roberts, David. The Baʿath and the Creation of Modern Syria. London: Routledge, 1987.Google Scholar
Roberts, Hugh. “Who Said Gaddafi Had to Go?London Review of Books 33, no. 22 (2011): 818.Google Scholar
Roessler, Philip. “The Enemy Within: Personal Rule, Coups, and Civil War in Africa.” World Politics 63, no. 2 (April 2011): 300346.Google Scholar
Roll, Stephan. “Managing Change: How Egypt’s Military Leadership Shaped the Transformation.” Mediterranean Politics 21, no. 1 (October 2015): 2343.Google Scholar
Rosen, Nir. “Among the Alawites.” London Review of Books 34, no. 18 (September 2012). www.lrb.co.uk/v34/n18/nir-rosen/among-the-alawites. Accessed July 18, 2018.Google Scholar
Rouquie, Alain. The Military and the State in Latin America. Berkley, CA: University of California Press, 1982.Google Scholar
Russell, D. E. H. Rebellion, Revolution and Armed Force: A Comparative Study of Fifteen Countries with Special Emphasis on Cuba and South Africa. New York: Academic Press, 1974.Google Scholar
Ryan, Curtis R.Political Strategies and Regime Survival in Egypt.” Journal of Third World Studies 18, no. 2 (Fall 2011): 2546.Google Scholar
Sabra, Hasan. Laʿnta Lubnan. Beirut: Difaf Publishing, 2016.Google Scholar
Sabra, Hasan Suria, Suqut al-ʿAʾila, ʿAwdat al-Watan. Beirut: Arab Scientific Publishers, 2013.Google Scholar
Sabri, Mussa. Wathaʾiq Harb October. Cairo: al-Maktab al-Masri al-Hadith, 1975.Google Scholar
Mahmud, Sadeq., Hiwar hawla Suria. London: Dar ʿOkaz, 1993.Google Scholar
Sadowski, Yahya M.Patronage and the Baʿath: Corruption and Control in Contemporary Syria.” Arab Studies Quarterly 19, no. 4 (Fall 1987): 445459.Google Scholar
Saghieh, Hazem. Al-Baʿath al-Suri, Tarikh Mujaz. Beirut: Dar al-Saqi, 2012.Google Scholar
Saʿid, al-Safi. Bourguiba, Sira Shebh Muharrama. Tunis: ʿOrabia, 2011.Google Scholar
Said, Atef. “The Paradox of Transition to ‘Democracy’ under Military Rule.” Social Research 79, no. 2 (Summer 2012): 397434.Google Scholar
Salemeh, Rafia. “Sanawat al-Taʿfish.” Al-Jumhuriyya, August 8, 2018. www.aljumhuriya.net/ar/content/سنوات-التعفيش. Accessed August 13, 2018.Google Scholar
Sami, Riad. Shahed ʿala ʿAsr al-Raʾis Mohammad Neguib. Cairo: al-Maktab al-Masri al-Hadith, 2004.Google Scholar
Sariba, Ali. “The Role of the Military in the Arab Uprisings: The Case of Tunisia and Libya.” PhD diss., University of Nottingham, 2016.Google Scholar
Sassoon, Joseph. Anatomy of Authoritarianism in the Arab Republics. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Sayf, Nabil. “Al-Haras al-Jumhuri … Min al-Malik Faruq ila Mursi.” Al-Wafd, September 12, 2012. https://alwafd.news/ملفات-محلية/263841-الحرس-الجمهوري-من-الملك-فاروق-إلي-«مرسي». Accessed July 14, 2014.Google Scholar
Sayigh, Yezid. “Missed Opportunity: The Politics of Police Reform in Egypt and Tunisia.” Carnegie Middle East Center, March 7, 2015. http://carnegieendowment.org/files/missed_opportunity.pdf. Accessed April 18, 2016.Google Scholar
Sayigh, Yezid “Militaries, Civilians and the Crisis of the Arab State.” The Monkey Cage, December 8, 2014. www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2014/12/08/militaries-civilians-and-the-crisis-of-the-arab-state/?utm_term=.ecd8bcfa236f. Accessed December 2, 2018.Google Scholar
Sayigh, Yezid “Above the State: The Officers’ Republic in Egypt.” Carnegie Middle East Center, August 1, 2012. http://carnegie-mec.org/2012/08/01/above-state-officers-republic-in-egypt-pub-48972. Accessed November 22, 2017.Google Scholar
Sayigh, YezidAgencies of Coercion: Armies and Internal Security Forces.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 43, no. 3 (2011): 403405.Google Scholar
Schenker, David. “Washington’s Limited Influence in Egypt.” Washington Institute for Near East Policy, September 15, 2011. www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/washingtons-limited-influence-in-egypt. Accessed January 15, 2019.Google Scholar
Schmitter, Philippe, and O’Donnell, Guillermo. Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985.Google Scholar
Schraeder, Peter J., and Redissi, Hamadi, “The Upheavals in Egypt and Tunisia: Ben Ali’s Fall.” Journal of Democracy 22, no. 3 (July 2011): 519.Google Scholar
Scott Cooper, Andrew. The Fall of Heaven, the Pahlavis and the Final Days of Imperial Iran. New York: Picador, 2018.Google Scholar
Seale, Patrick. Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East. Berkley, CA: University of California Press, 1988.Google Scholar
Selvik, Kjetil. “Roots of Fragmentation: The Army and Regime Survival in Syria.” CMI Insight, no. 2 (April 2014). www.cmi.no/publications/file/5127-roots-of-fragmentation.pdf. Accessed June 5, 2016.Google Scholar
Semenov, Kiril. “Who Controls Syria? The Al-Assad Family, the Inner Circle, and the Tycoons.” Russian International Affairs Council, February 14, 2018. http://russiancouncil.ru/en/analytics-and-comments/analytics/who-controls-syria-the-al-assad-family-the-inner-circle-and-the-tycoons/. Accessed May 29, 2018.Google Scholar
Sereni, Jean Pierre. “Après Ben Ali ‘Ben ʿAli, Zein al-ʿAbidin,’ quelle police en Tunisie?” Le Monde Diplomatique, April 1, 2011. www.monde-diplomatique.fr/carnet/2011–04-01-Tunisie. Accessed October 15, 2017.Google Scholar
Seurat, Michel (writing as Paul Maler). “La Société Syrienne Contre Son Etat.” Le Monde Diplomatique (April 1980): 45.Google Scholar
Seymour, Martin. “The Dynamics of Power in Syria since the Break with Egypt.” Middle Eastern Studies 16, no. 1 (January 1970): 3547.Google Scholar
Sfakianakis, John. “The Whales of the Nile: Networks, Businessmen, and Bureaucrats during the Era of Privatization in Egypt.” In Networks of Privileges in the Middle East, edited by Heydemann, Steven, 77100. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.Google Scholar
Shah, Aqil. “Constraining Consolidation: Military Politics and Democracy in Pakistan, 2007–2013.” Democratization 21, no. 6 (2014): 10071033.Google Scholar
Sharaf, Sami. ʿAbdul Nasser: Kayfa Hakama Masr. Cairo: Madbuli al-Saghir, 1996.Google Scholar
Sharaf, Sami Sanawat wa-Ayyam maʿ ʿAbdul Nasser, Shahadat Sami Sharaf, al-Kitab al-Awwal. Cairo: al-Maktab al-Masri al-Hadith, 2014.Google Scholar
Shatz, Adam. “Mubarak’s Last Breath.” London Review of Books 32, no. 10 (May 2010). www.lrb.co.uk/v32/n10/adam-shatz/mubaraks-last-breath. Accessed March 2, 2013.Google Scholar
Shehata, Dina. “The Fall of the Pharaoh: How Hosni Mubarak’s Reign Came to an End.” Foreign Affairs 90, no. 3 (May/June 2011): 2632.Google Scholar
Shenker, Jack. “Egyptian Arms Officer’s Diary of a Military life in a Revolution.” The Guardian, December 28, 2011. www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/28/egyptian-military-officers-diary. Accessed November 27, 2014.Google Scholar
Sherlock, Ruth. “Confessions of an Assad ‘Shabiha’ Loyalist: How I Raped and Killed for £300 a Month.” The Telegraph, July 14, 2012. www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9400570/Confessions-of-an-Assad-Shabiha-loyalist-how-I-raped-and-killed-for-300-a-month.html. Accessed March 19, 2017.Google Scholar
Shukr, ʿAbdul-Ghaffar. Al-Taliʿa al-ʿArabiyya, al-Tanzim al-Qawmi al-Sirri li-Gamal ʿAbdul Nasser, 1965–1986. Beirut: Markaz Dirasat al-Wihada al-ʿArabiyya, 2015.Google Scholar
Shukri, Ghali. Al-Thawra al-Mudada fi Masr. Cairo: Kitab al-Ahali, 1987.Google Scholar
Singh, Naunihal. Seizing Power: The Strategic Logic of Military Coups. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Sirrs, Owen L. The Egyptian Intelligence Service: A History of the Mukhabarat, 1910–2009. London: Routledge, 2010.Google Scholar
Slater, Dan. Ordering Power: Contentious Politic and Authoritarian Leviathans in Southeast Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Soffer, Gad. “The Role of the Officer Class in Syrian Politics and Society.” PhD diss., American University, 1968.Google Scholar
Sohn, Jae Souk. “Political Dominance and Political Failure: The Role of the Military in the Republic of Korea.” In The Military Intervenes: Case Studies in Political Development, edited by Bienen, Henry, 103126. New York: Russel Sage Foundation, 1968.Google Scholar
Soliman, Samer. The Political Economy of Mubarak’s Fall.” In Arab Spring in Egypt: Revolution and Beyond, edited by Korany, Bahgat and El-Mahdi, Rabab, 4362. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Springborg, Robert. Mubarak’s Egypt: Fragmentation of the Political Order. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1989.Google Scholar
Stacher, Joshua. Adaptable Autocrats: Regime Power in Egypt and Syria. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Starr, Stephen. “Shabiha Militias and the Destruction of Syria.” CTC Sentinel 5, no. 11 (November 2012): 1214.Google Scholar
Steavenson, Wendell. Circling the Square: Stories from the Egyptian Revolution. New York: HarperCollins, 2015.Google Scholar
Steavenson, Wendell“On the Square: Were the Egyptian Protesters Right to Trust the Military?” The New Yorker, February 21, 2011. www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/02/28/on-the-square-wendell-steavenson. Accessed April 4, 2020.Google Scholar
Stepan, Alfred. Rethinking Military Politics: Brazil and the Southern Cone. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988.Google Scholar
St John, Ronald Bruce. Libya: From Colony to Independence. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2008.Google Scholar
St John, Ronald BruceRedefining the Libyan Revolution: The Changing Ideology of Muammar al-Qaddafi.” The Journal of North African Studies 13, no. 1 (March 2008): 91106.Google Scholar
Stratfor. “The Use of Mercenaries in Syria’s Crackdown.” January 12, 2012. https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/use-mercenaries-syrias-crackdown. Accessed July 1, 2018.Google Scholar
Svolik, Milan. The Politics of Authoritarian Rule. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Svolik, MilanPower Sharing and Leadership Dynamics in Authoritarian Regimes.” American Journal of Political Science 53, no. 2 (April 2009): 477494.Google Scholar
Synaps Network. “Picking Up the Pieces: How Syrian Society Has Changed.” August 6, 2018. www.synaps.network/picking-up-the-pieces. Accessed August 6, 2018.Google Scholar
Syrian Human Rights Committee. “Report on the Human Rights Situation in Syria over a 20-Year Period, 1979–1999.” London, 2001. Released by WikiLeaks. https://wikileaks.org/gifiles/attach/150/150649_SYRIAN%20HUMAN%20RIGHTS%20COMMITTEE.pdf. Accessed April 15, 2018.Google Scholar
Tallaa, Maen. “The Syrian Security Services and the Need for Structural and Functional Change.” Omran for Strategic Studies (November 2016). http://en.omrandirasat.org/publications/papers/the-syrian-security-services-and-the-need-for-structural-and-functional-change.html. Accessed March 8, 2017.Google Scholar
Talmadge, Caitlin. The Dictator’s Army: Battlefield Effectiveness in Authoritarian Regimes. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Taylor, Brian. Politics and the Russian Army: Civil–Military Relations, 1689–2000. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Taylor, William C. Military Responses to the Arab Uprisings and the Future of Civil–Military Relations in the Middle East: Analysis from Egypt, Tunisia, Libya, and Syria. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.Google Scholar
Thompson, William. “Organizational Cohesion and Military Coup Outcomes.” Comparative Political Studies 9, no. 3 (October 1976): 255276.Google Scholar
Thompson, WilliamRegime Vulnerability and the Military Coup.” Comparative Politics 7, no. 4 (July 1975): 459487.Google Scholar
Thompson, William “The Grievances of Military Coup-Makers.” Sage Professional Papers in Comparative Politics, no. 01-047. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1973.Google Scholar
Tlass, Mustafa. Merʾat Hayati, al-ʿAqd al-Thani, 1958–1968. Damascus: Dar Tlassli-l-Dirasat wa-l-Nashr wa-l-Tawziʿ, 2006.Google Scholar
Tlass, Mustafa Merʾat Hayati, al-ʿAqd al-Thaleth, 1968–1978. Damascus: Dar Tlassli-l-Dirasat wa-l-Nashr wa-l-Tawziʿ, 2003.Google Scholar
Transparency International. “Corruption Perceptions Index 2017.” www.transparency.org/country/SYR. Accessed June 1, 2018.Google Scholar
Trinkunas, Harold. Crafting Civilian Control of the Military in Venezuela: A Comparative Perspective. Chapel Hill, NC: University of Carolina Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Trinkunas, HaroldCrafting Civilian Control in Argentina and Venezuela.” In Civil–Military Relations in Latin America, edited by Pion-Berlin, David, 161193. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Trotsky, Leon. History of the Russian Revolution. Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books, 2008.Google Scholar
US Department of the Treasury. “Treasury Sanctions Al-Nusrah Front Leadership in Syria and Militias Supporting the Asad Regime.” Press release, December 11, 2012. www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/pages/tg1797.aspx. Accessed June 7, 2018.Google Scholar
Valter, Stéphane. “Rivalités et complémentarités au sein des forces armées: le facteur confessionnel en Syrie.” Les Champs de Mars 1, no. 23 (2012): 7996.Google Scholar
Van Dam, Nikolaos. The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba‘th Party. New York: I.B. Tauris, 1996.Google Scholar
Van Dam, NikolaosSectarian and Regional Factionalism in the Syrian Elite.” Middle East Journal 32, no. 2 (Spring 1978): 201210.Google Scholar
Vandewalle, Dirk. A History of Modern Libya. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Vatikiotis, P. J. The Egyptian Army in Politics: Pattern for New Nations? Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1961.Google Scholar
Ware, L. B.The Role of the Tunisian Military in the Post-Bourguiba Era.” Middle East Journal 39, no. 1 (Winter 1985): 2747.Google Scholar
Waterbury, John. The Egypt of Nasser and Sadat: The Political Economy of Two Regimes. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983.Google Scholar
Wedeen, Lisa. Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric, and Symbols in Contemporary Syria. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Weeks, Jessica L. P. Dictators at War and Peace. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Wege, C. A.Assad’s Legions: The Syrian Intelligence Services.” The International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence 4, no. 1 (Spring 1990): 91100.Google Scholar
Weymouth, Lally. “Egyptian Generals Speak about the Revolution, Elections.” The Washington Post, May 18, 2011. www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle-east/egyptian-generals-speak-about-revolution-elections/2011/05/16/AF7AiU6G_story.html?utm_term=.e8a659988cfb. Accessed April 25, 2014.Google Scholar
White, Jeffrey. “A Willingness to Kill: Repression in Syria.” PolicyWatch 1840. Washington Institute for Near East Policy, August 16, 2011. www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/a-willingness-to-kill-repression-in-syria. Accessed July 17, 2018.Google Scholar
Wilford, Hugh. America’s Great Game: The CIA’s Secret Arabists and the Shaping of the Modern Middle East. New York: Basic Books, 2013.Google Scholar
Williams, Philip J., and Walter, Knut. Militarization and Demilitarization in El Salvador’s Transition to Democracy. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Woods, Kevin N., Williamson, Murray, and Thomas, Holaday. “Saddam’s War: An Iraqi Military Perspective of the Iraq–Iran War.” McNair Paper 70. Washington, DC: National Defense University, 2009.Google Scholar
Wright, John. A History of Libya. New York: Columbia University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Wright, Lawrence. The Terror Years: From Al-Qaeda to the Islamic State. New York: Vintage, 2017.Google Scholar
Ya’ari, Ehud. “Sadat’s Pyramid of Power.” The Jerusalem Quarterly 14 (Winter 1980): 113114.Google Scholar
Yossef, Amr. “Sadat as Supreme Commander.” The Journal of Strategic Studies 37, no. 4 (2014): 532555.Google Scholar
Yuness, Sharif. Nidaʾ al-Shaʿb, Tarikh Naqdi li-l-Ideologia al-Nasiriyya. Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 2012.Google Scholar
Yusef al-Moqaryaf, Mohammad. Inqilab al-Qaddhafi, Muʿammar, al-Tughian al-Thawari wa-ʿAbqariyyat al-Sufh, September 1969–March 1977. Oxford: Centre for Libyan Studies, 2018.Google Scholar
Zargoski, Paul. “Democratic Breakdown in Paraguay and Venezuela: The Shape of Things to Come for Latin America.” Armed Forces & Society 30, no. 1 (Fall 2003): 87116.Google Scholar
Zein al-ʿAbidin, Bashir. Al-Jaysh wa-l-Siasa fi Suria (1918–2000), Dirasa Naqdiyya. London: Dar al-Jabia, 2008.Google Scholar
Zein al-ʿAbidin, BashirMalaf al-Fasad fi Suria, al-Halaqa al-Rabiʿa: Rumuz al-Fasad, al-Asad.” Majallat al-Sunna, no. 100 (October 2000). http://sunah.org/main/393-3-ملفات–ملف-الفساد-في-سوريا–الحلقة-الرابعة–رموز-الفساد–آل-أسد.html. Accessed April 25, 2018.Google Scholar
Zénobie. “Syrie: un officier supérieur parle.” Le Monde Diplomatique, September 7, 2011. www.monde-diplomatique.fr/carnet/2011–09-07-Syrie-un-officier-superieur-parle. Accessed September 7, 2011.Google Scholar
Ziade, Ridwan. Al-Sulta wa-l-Istikhbarat fi Suria. Beirut: Riad El-Rayyes Books, 2013.Google Scholar
Zisser, Eyal. “The Syrian Army on the Domestic and External Fronts.” In Armed Forces in the Middle East: Politics and Strategy, edited by Rubin, Barry and Keaney, Thomas, 113129. London: Frank Cass, 2002.Google Scholar
Zisser, Eyal “Appearance and Reality: Syria’s Decision-Making Structure.” Middle East Review of International Affairs (May 1998). www.rubincenter.org/1998/05/zisser-1998–05-05/. Accessed March 7, 2016.Google Scholar
Zisser, Eyal “Decision Making in Asad’s Syria.” The Washington Institute Policy Focus, research memorandum no. 35 (February 1998).Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

  • Bibliography
  • Hicham Bou Nassif, Claremont McKenna College, California
  • Book: Endgames
  • Online publication: 15 September 2020
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108893695.008
Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

  • Bibliography
  • Hicham Bou Nassif, Claremont McKenna College, California
  • Book: Endgames
  • Online publication: 15 September 2020
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108893695.008
Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

  • Bibliography
  • Hicham Bou Nassif, Claremont McKenna College, California
  • Book: Endgames
  • Online publication: 15 September 2020
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108893695.008
Available formats
×