Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T09:02:02.343Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

10 - Sociobiological Transition and Cancer

Prospects for Africa

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 December 2019

By
Sulma I. Mohammed ,
Khalid O. Alfarouk ,
Ahmed M. Elhassan ,
Kamal Hamad  and
Muntaser E. Ibrahim
Edited by
Muntaser E. Ibrahim  and
Charles N. Rotimi
Muntaser E. Ibrahim
Affiliation:
University of Khartoum
Charles N. Rotimi
Affiliation:
National Human Genome Research Institute/NIH
Get access

Summary

This chapter addresses key questions about the basis of cancer susceptibility in African people, as well as the uniqueness of the population genetics and genotype–phenotype relationship that resulted during social transition. Social transition encompasses the change of lifestyle from a rural subsistence one into an urban market-oriented, technology dependent, and predominantly sedentary mode of life, as well as changes that occur in the population genetics as a result of changes from ethnically defined structured populations into panmictic populations of an urban nature, as currently seen in megacities. Although humans passed through several periods of transition in history, the current one is the most profound.

Type
Chapter
Information
The Genetics of African Populations in Health and Disease , pp. 217 - 232
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abdallah, MO, Algizouli, UK, Suliman, MA, et al. (2015). Methylome analysis reveals dysregulated developmental and viral pathways in breast cancer. bioRxiv (online). DOI: 10.1101/034322.Google Scholar
Ahmed, HG, Doumi, MA, Eltybe, MM, Mahmoud, TA, and Ebnoof, SO (2014). Burden of cancer in North Sudan: a community-based survey. Manag Health. DOI: 10.5233/mih.v18i3.329.Google Scholar
Ahmed, SG and Ibrahim, UA (2007). Significance of haemoglobin-S in the pathogenesis of hyperleucocytic syndromes in Nigerian patients with chronic myeloid leukaemia. Eur J Haematol 79(2): 174–176.Google Scholar
Alfarouk, KO, Stock, C-M, Taylor, S, et al. (2015). Resistance to cancer chemotherapy: failure in drug response from ADME to P-gp. Cancer Cell Int 15(71): 71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allan, JM, Wild, CP, Rollinson, S, et al. (2001). Polymorphism in glutathione S-transferase P1 is associated with susceptibility to chemotherapy-induced leukemia. PNAS 98(20): 11592–11597.Google Scholar
Barrière, J, Formento, J-L, Milano, G, and Ferrero, J-M (2010). CYP2D6 polymorphisms and tamoxifen: therapeutic perspectives in the management of hormone dependent breast cancer patients. Bulletin du Cancer 97(3): 311–320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benkerrou, M, Alberti, C, Couque, N, et al. (2013). Impact of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency on sickle cell anaemia expression in infancy and early childhood: a prospective study. Br J Haematol 163(5): 646–654.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernard, S, Neville, KA, Nguyen, AT, and Flockhart, DA (2006). Interethnic differences in genetic polymorphisms of CYP2D6 in the U.S. population: clinical implications. Oncologist 11(2): 126–135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blann, A (2015). An update on vitamin D deficiency and at risk groups. J Family Health 25(3): 16–19.Google Scholar
Bouillon, R, Van Cromphaut, S, and Carmeliet, G (2003). Intestinal calcium absorption: molecular vitamin D mediated mechanisms. J Cell Biochem 88(2): 332–339.Google Scholar
Braumüller, H, Wieder, T, Brenner, E, et al. (2013). T-helper-1-cell cytokines drive cancer into senescence. Nature 494: 361–365.Google Scholar
Campbell, MC and Tishkoff, SA (2008). African genetic diversity: implications for human demographic history, modern human origins, and complex disease mapping. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet 9: 403–433.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cappellini, MD and Fiorelli, G (2008). Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency. Lancet 371(9606): 64–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chandra, P, Wolfenden, LL, Ziegler, TR, et al. (2007). Treatment of vitamin D deficiency with UV light in patients with malabsorption syndromes: a case series. Photodermatol, Photo Immunol Photomed 23(5): 179–185.Google Scholar
Choudhury, A, Hazelhurst, S, Meintjes, A, et al. (2013). Population-specific common SNPs reflect demographic histories and highlight regions of genomic plasticity with functional relevance. BMC Genomics 15(1): 437.Google Scholar
Cocco, P (1987). Does G6PD deficiency protect against cancer? A critical review. J Epidemiol Community Health 41(2): 89–93.Google Scholar
Corpas, FJ, Barroso, JB, Sandalio, LM, et al. (1998). A dehydrogenase-mediated recycling system of NADPH in plant peroxisomes. Biochem J 330 (Pt 2): 777–784.Google Scholar
Correia, A, Azevedo, M, Do, S, Gondim, F, and Bandeira, F (2014). Ethnic aspects of vitamin D deficiency. Arquivos brasileiros de endocrinologia e metabologia 58(5): 540–544.Google Scholar
Cranney, A, Horsley, T, O’Donnell, S, et al. (2007). Effectiveness and safety of vitamin D in relation to bone health. Evid Rep Technol Assess 158: 1–235.Google Scholar
Crissey, SD, Ange, KD, Jacobsen, KL, et al. (2003). Serum concentrations of lipids, vitamin D metabolites, retinol, retinyl esters, tocopherols and selected carotenoids in twelve captive wild felid species at four zoos. J Nutr 133(1): 160–166.Google Scholar
Davies, SM, Robison, LL, Buckley, JD, et al. (2001). Glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms and outcome of chemotherapy in childhood acute myeloid leukemia. J Clin Oncol 19(5): 1279–1287.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, SV (2011). Vitamin D deficiency and type 2 diabetes in African Americans: the common denominators. Diabetes Spectrum 24(3): 148–153.Google Scholar
Dawson-Hughes, B (2004). Racial/ethnic considerations in making recommendations for vitamin D for adult and elderly men and women. Am J Clin Nutr 80(6 Suppl.): 1763S–1766S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Desta, Z, Ward, BA, Soukhova, NV, and Flockhart, DA (2004). Comprehensive evaluation of tamoxifen sequential biotransformation by the human cytochrome P450 system in vitro: prominent roles for CYP3A and CYP2D6. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 310(3): 1062–1075.Google Scholar
Elamin, A, Zhu, H, Hassan, AME, Xu, N, and Ibrahim, ME (2013). Peroxiredoxin V: a candidate breast tumor marker of population specificity. Mol Clin Oncol 1(3): 541–549.Google Scholar
Elamin, A, Ibrahim, ME, Abuidris, D, Mohamed, KEH, and Mohammed, SI (2015). Part I: cancer in Sudan – burden, distribution, and trends breast, gynecological, and prostate cancers. Cancer Med 4(3): 447–456.Google Scholar
El Fadli, KI, Cerveny, RS, Burt, CC, et al. (2013). World Meteorological Organization assessment of the purported world record 58°C temperature extreme at El Azizia, Libya (13 September 1922). Bull Am Meteorol Soc 94(2): 199–204.Google Scholar
Elhassan, N, Gebremeskel, EI, Elnour, MA, et al. (2014). The episode of genetic drift defining the migration of humans out of Africa is derived from a large East African population size. PLoS One 9(5): e97674.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eltahir, HA, Adam, AAM, Yahia, ZA, et al. (2012). p53 codon 72 arginine/proline polymorphism and cancer in Sudan. Mol Biol Rep 39(12): 10833–10836.Google Scholar
Evans, WE, Hon, YY, Bomgaars, L, et al. (2001). Preponderance of thiopurine S-methyltransferase deficiency and heterozygosity among patients intolerant to mercaptopurine or azathioprine. J Clin Oncol 19(8): 2293–2301.Google Scholar
Ferrari, R, Berk, AJ, and Kurdistani, SK (2009). Viral manipulation of the host epigenome for oncogenic transformation. Nat Rev Genet 10(5): 290–294.Google Scholar
Fico, A, Paglialunga, F, Cigliano, L, et al. (2004). Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase plays a crucial role in protection from redox-stress-induced apoptosis. Cell Death Differ 11(8): 823–831.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flanagan, JM (2007). Host epigenetic modifications by oncogenic viruses. Br J Cancer 96(2): 183–188.Google Scholar
Forrest, KYZ and Stuhldreher, WL (2011). Prevalence and correlates of vitamin D deficiency in US adults. Nutr Res 31(1): 48–54.Google Scholar
Freireich, EJ, Gehan, E, Frei, E, et al. (1963). The effect of 6-mercaptopurine on the duration of steroid-induced remissions in acute leukemia: a model for evaluation of other potentially useful therapy. Blood 21(6): 699–716.Google Scholar
Fujita, K-I and Sasaki, Y (2007). Pharmacogenomics in drug-metabolizing enzymes catalyzing anticancer drugs for personalized cancer chemotherapy. Curr Drug Metab 8(6): 554–562.Google Scholar
García-Becerra, R, Santos, N, Díaz, L, and Camacho, J (2012). Mechanisms of resistance to endocrine therapy in breast cancer: focus on signaling pathways, miRNAs and genetically based resistance. Int J Mol Sci 14(1): 108–145.Google Scholar
Garcia-Closas, M, Kelsey, KT, Hankinson, SE, et al. (1999). Glutathione S-transferase mu and theta polymorphisms and breast cancer susceptibility. JNCI 91(22): 1960–1964.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ge, Y and Elghetany, MT (2005). CD36: a multiligand molecule. Lab Hematol 11(1): 31–37.Google Scholar
Gebreab, SY, Diez Roux, AV, Brenner, AB, et al. (2015). The impact of lifecourse socioeconomic position on cardiovascular disease events in African Americans: the Jackson Heart Study. J Am Heart Assoc 4(6): e001553–e001553.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glaser, SL, Hsu, JL, and Gulley, ML (2004). Epstein–Barr virus and breast cancer: state of the evidence for viral carcinogenesis. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 13(5): 688–697.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greene, L (1993). G6PD deficiency as protection against falciparum malaria: an epidemiologic critique of population and experimental studies. Yearbook Phys Anthropol 36: 153–178.Google Scholar
Gurdasani, D, Carstensen, T, Tekola-Ayele, F, et al. (2015). The African Genome Variation Project shapes medical genetics in Africa. Nature 517(7534): 327–332.Google Scholar
Hanahan, D and Weinberg, RA (2000). The hallmarks of cancer. Cell 100(1): 57–70.Google Scholar
Hanahan, D and Weinberg, RA (2011). Hallmarks of cancer: the next generation. Cell Elsevier 144(5): 646–674.Google Scholar
Harris, SS (2006). Vitamin D and African Americans. J Nutr 136(4): 1126–1129.Google Scholar
Harris, SS, Soteriades, E, Coolidge, JA, Mudgal, S, and Dawson-Hughes, B (2000). Vitamin D insufficiency and hyperparathyroidism in a low income, multiracial, elderly population. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85(11): 4125–4130.Google Scholar
Hayes, JD, Flanagan, JU, and Jowsey, IR (2005). Glutathione transferases. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 45: 51–88.Google Scholar
He, H, Zhang, X, Sun, J, et al. (2014). Glutathione S-transferase gene polymorphisms and susceptibility to chronic myeloid leukemia. Tumour Biol 35(6): 6119–6125.Google Scholar
Herrmann, K and Niedobitek, G (2003). Epstein–Barr virus-associated carcinomas: facts and fiction. J Pathol 199(2): 140–145.Google Scholar
Holick, MF (2004). Sunlight and vitamin D for bone health and prevention of autoimmune diseases, cancers, and cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr 80(6 Suppl.): 1678S–1688S.Google Scholar
Holick, MF (2005). The vitamin D epidemic and its health consequences. J Nutr 135(11): 2739S–2748S.Google Scholar
Holick, MF (2008). Vitamin D and sunlight: strategies for cancer prevention and other health benefits. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 3(5): 1548–1554.Google Scholar
Holick, MF and Chen, TC (2008). Vitamin D deficiency: a worldwide problem with health consequences. Am J Clin Nutr 87(4): 1080S–1086S.Google Scholar
Hon, YY, Fessing, MY, Pui, CH, et al. (1999). Polymorphism of the thiopurine S-methyltransferase gene in African-Americans. Hum Mol Genet 8(2): 371–376.Google Scholar
Hoskins, JM, Carey, LA, and McLeod, HL (2009). CYP2D6 and tamoxifen: DNA matters in breast cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 9(8): 576–586.Google Scholar
Houston, TK, Scarinci, IC, Person, SD, and Greene, PG (2005). Patient smoking cessation advice by health care providers: the role of ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and health. Am J Public Health 95(6): 1056–1061.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hui, EP, Taylor, GS, Jia, H, et al. (2013). Phase I trial of recombinant modified vaccinia ankara encoding Epstein–Barr viral tumor antigens in nasopharyngeal carcinoma patients. Cancer Res 73(6): 1676–1688.Google Scholar
Hyman, CB, Brubaker, C, and Sturgeon, P (1957). 6-mercaptopurine in childhood leukemia: comparison of large dose interrupted with small dose continuous therapy. Cancer Res 17(9): 851–856.Google Scholar
Ibrahim, ME and Osman, E-AI (2011). Myeloid leukemia: a molecular focus on etiology and risk within Africa. In Koschmieder, S and Krug, U, eds., Myeloid Leukemia: Basic Mechanisms of Leukemogenesis. Rijeka: InTech.Google Scholar
Ihsan, R, Chauhan, PS, Mishra, AK, et al. (2014). Copy number polymorphism of glutathione-S-transferase genes (GSTM1 & GSTT1) in susceptibility to lung cancer in a high-risk population from north-east India. Ind J Med Res 139(5): 720–729.Google Scholar
Ingelman-Sundberg, M (2005). Genetic polymorphisms of cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6): clinical consequences, evolutionary aspects and functional diversity. Pharmacogenomics J 5(1): 6–13.Google Scholar
Jablonka, E and Raz, G (2009). Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance: prevalence, mechanisms, and implications for the study of heredity and evolution. Quart Rev Biol 84(2): 131–176.Google Scholar
Jain, M, Brenner, DA, Cui, L, et al. (2003). Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase modulates cytosolic redox status and contractile phenotype in adult cardiomyocytes. Circulation Res 93(2): e9–e16.Google Scholar
Jemal, A, Center, MM, DeSantis, C, and Ward, EM (2010). Global patterns of cancer incidence and mortality rates and trends. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 19(8): 1893–1907.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, CD, Smart, C, Titus, A, et al. (1993). Thiopurine methyltransferase activity in a sample population of black subjects in Florida. Pharmacol Ther, Part C 53(3): 348–353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jordan, VC (1993). Fourteenth Gaddum Memorial Lecture: a current view of tamoxifen for the treatment and prevention of breast cancer. Br J Pharmacol 110(2): 507–517.Google Scholar
Kanavos, P (2006). The rising burden of cancer in the developing world. Ann Oncol 17(Suppl. 8): viii15–viii23.Google Scholar
Keshava, C, McCanlies, EC, and Weston, A (2004). CYP3A4 polymorphisms: potential risk factors for breast and prostate cancer – a HuGE review. Am J Epidemiol 160(9): 825–841.Google Scholar
Knudson, AG (1971). Mutation and cancer: statistical study of retinoblastoma. PNAS 68(4): 820–823.Google Scholar
Krynetski, E and Evans, WE (2003). Drug methylation in cancer therapy: lessons from the TPMT polymorphism. Oncogene 22(47): 7403–7413.Google Scholar
Laux, P, Kunstmann, H, and Bárdossy, A (2008). Predicting the regional onset of the rainy season in West Africa. Int J Climatol 28(3): 329–342.Google Scholar
Laux, P, Wagner, S, Wagner, A, et al. (2009). Modelling daily precipitation features in the Volta Basin of West Africa. Int J Climatol 29(7): 937–954.Google Scholar
Lee, D, Szumlanski, C, Houtman, J, et al. (1995). Thiopurine methyltransferase pharmacogenetics: cloning of human liver cDNA and a processed pseudogene on human chromosome 18q21.1. Drug Metab Dispos 23(3): 398–405.Google Scholar
Li, K, Yang, M, Yuen, PMP, et al. (2003). Thrombospondin-1 induces apoptosis in primary leukemia and cell lines mediated by CD36 and Caspase-3. Int J Med Mol Adv Sci 12(6): 995–1001.Google Scholar
Lin, M, Yang, LY, Xie, DD, et al. (2015). G6PD deficiency and hemoglobinopathies: molecular epidemiological characteristics and healthy effects on malaria endemic Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea. PLoS One 10(4): e0123991.Google Scholar
Lloyd, MC, Alfarouk, KO, Verduzco, D, et al. (2014). Vascular measurements correlate with estrogen receptor status. BMC Cancer 14(1): 279.Google Scholar
Looker, AC, Dawson-Hughes, B, Calvo, MS, Gunter, EW, and Sahyoun, NR (2002). Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status of adolescents and adults in two seasonal subpopulations from NHANES III. Bone 30(5): 771–777.Google Scholar
Mannervik, B, Alin, P, Guthenberg, C, et al. (1985). Identification of three classes of cytosolic glutathione transferase common to several mammalian species: correlation between structural data and enzymatic properties. PNAS 82(21): 7202–7206.Google Scholar
Masri, MA, Abdel Seed, NM, Fahal, AH, et al. (2002). Minor role for BRCA2 (exon11) and p53 (exon 5–9) among Sudanese breast cancer patients. Breast Cancer Res Treat 71(2): 145–147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masri, MA, Elhassan, NM, Hiba, SM, Wasunna, CSA, and Ibrahim, ME (2015). In-vitro “depletion” of mitochondrial cytochrome C oxidase subunit II affects the patterns of gene expression across multiple cancer pathways. J Mol Biomark Diagn. DOI: 10.4172/2155-9929.S2-011.Google Scholar
McIlwain, CC, Townsend, DM, and Tew, KD (2006). Glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms: cancer incidence and therapy. Oncogene 25(11): 1639–1648.Google Scholar
McLeod, HL, Lin, JS, Scott, EP, Pui, CH, and Evans, WE (1994). Thiopurine methyltransferase activity in American white subjects and black subjects. Pharmacol Ther, Part C 55(1): 15–20.Google Scholar
Mersha, TB and Abebe, T (2015). Self-reported race/ethnicity in the age of genomic research: its potential impact on understanding health disparities. Hum Genomics 9(1): 1.Google Scholar
Newman, LA, Griffith, KA, Jatoi, I, et al. (2006). Meta-analysis of survival in African American and white American patients with breast cancer: ethnicity compared with socioeconomic status. J Clin Oncol 24(9): 1342–1349.Google Scholar
Newsom, JT, Huguet, N, McCarthy, MJ, et al. (2012). Health behavior change following chronic illness in middle and later life. J Gerontol B 67(3): 279–288.Google Scholar
Novillo, A, Romero-Lorca, A, Gaibar, M, et al. (2015). Genetic diversity of CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 polymorphisms in North African populations from Morocco and Tunisia. Int J Biol Markers 30(1): e148–e151.Google Scholar
Omoti, CE, Olu-Eddo, AN, and Nwannadi, AI (2009). Co-existence of TB and adult haematological cancers in Benin City, Nigeria. Tropical Doctor 39(4): 205–207.Google Scholar
Palser, AL, Grayson, NE, White, RE, et al. (2015). Genome diversity of Epstein–Barr virus from multiple tumour types and normal infection. J Virol 89: 03614.Google Scholar
Parkin, DM (2004). International variation. Oncogene 23(38): 6329–6340.Google Scholar
Paschos, K and Allday, MJ (2010). Epigenetic reprogramming of host genes in viral and microbial pathogenesis. Trends Microbiol 18(10): 439–447.Google Scholar
Podsiadlo, P, Sinani, VA, Bahng, JH, et al. (2008). Gold nanoparticles enhance the anti-leukemia action of a 6-mercaptopurine chemotherapeutic agent. Langmuir 24(2): 568–574.Google Scholar
Ponder, BA (2001). Cancer genetics. Nature 411(6835): 336–341.Google Scholar
Pongtheerat, T, Treetrisool, M, and Purisa, W (2009). Glutathione s-transferase polymorphisms in breast cancers of Thai patients. APJCP 10(1): 127–132.Google Scholar
Poreba, E, Broniarczyk, JK, and Gozdzicka-Jozefiak, A (2011). Epigenetic mechanisms in virus-induced tumorigenesis. Clinical Epigenetics 2(2): 233–247.Google Scholar
Relling, MV, Gardner, EE, Sandborn, WJ, et al. (2011). Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium guidelines for thiopurine methyltransferase genotype and thiopurine dosing. Pharmacol Ther, Part C 89(3): 387–391.Google Scholar
Ricciardelli, I, Blundell, MP, Brewin, J, et al. (2014). Towards gene therapy for EBV-associated posttransplant lymphoma with genetically modified EBV-specific cytotoxic T cells. Blood 124(16): 2514–2522.Google Scholar
Roadmap Epigenomics Consortium, Kundaje, A, Meuleman, W, et al. (2015). Integrative analysis of 111 reference human epigenomes. Nature 518(7539): 317–330.Google Scholar
Ruiss, R, Jochum, S, Wanner, G, et al. (2011). A virus-like particle-based Epstein–Barr virus vaccine. J Virol 85(24): 13105–13113.Google Scholar
Ruwende, C, Khoo, SC, Snow, RW, et al. (1995). Natural selection of hemi- and heterozygotes for G6PD deficiency in Africa by resistance to severe malaria. Nature 376(6537): 246–249.Google Scholar
Saccone, D, Asani, F, and Bornman, L (2015). Regulation of the vitamin D receptor gene by environment, genetics and epigenetics. Gene 561(2): 171–180.Google Scholar
Sahasranaman, S, Howard, D, and Roy, S (2008). Clinical pharmacology and pharmacogenetics of thiopurines. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 64(8): 753–767.Google Scholar
Schlesinger, D, Grinberg, LT, Alba, JG, et al. (2013). African ancestry protects against Alzheimer’s disease-related neuropathology. Mol Psychiatry 18(1): 79–85.Google Scholar
Stanton, RC (2012). Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, NADPH, and cell survival. IUBMB Life 64(5): 362–369.Google Scholar
Stanulla, M, Schrappe, M, Brechlin, AM, Zimmermann, M, and Welte, K (2000). Polymorphisms within glutathione S-transferase genes (GSTM1, GSTT1, GSTP1) and risk of relapse in childhood B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a case–control study. Blood 95(4): 1222–1228.Google Scholar
Strange, RC and Fryer, AA (1999). The glutathione S-transferases: influence of polymorphism on cancer susceptibility. IARC Sci Publ 148: 231–249.Google Scholar
Suleiman, SH, Koko, ME, Nasir, WH, et al. (2015). Exome sequencing of a colorectal cancer family reveals shared mutation pattern and predisposition circuitry along tumor pathways. Front Genet 6: 288.Google Scholar
Tang, Z-H, Zhang, C, Cheng, P, et al. (2014). Glutathione-S-transferase polymorphisms (GSTM1, GSTT1 and GSTP1) and acute leukemia risk in Asians: a meta-analysis. APJCP 15(5): 2075–2081.Google Scholar
Tishkoff, SA and Williams, SM (2002). Genetic analysis of African populations: human evolution and complex disease. Nat Rev Genet 3(8): 611–621.Google Scholar
Tzellos, S and Farrell, PJ (2012). Epstein–Barr virus sequence variation: biology and disease. Pathogens 1: 156–175.Google Scholar
Van Cromphaut, SJ, Rummens, K, Stockmans, I, et al. (2003). Intestinal calcium transporter genes are upregulated by estrogens and the reproductive cycle through vitamin D receptor-independent mechanisms. J Bone Miner Res 18(10): 1725–1736.Google Scholar
van de Graaf, SFJ, Boullart, I, Hoenderop, JGJ, and Bindels, RJM (2004). Regulation of the epithelial Ca2+ channels TRPV5 and TRPV6 by 1alpha,25-dihydroxy vitamin D3 and dietary Ca2+. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 89 –90(1–5): 303–308.Google Scholar
Veeck, J and Esteller, M (2010). Breast cancer epigenetics: from DNA methylation to microRNAs. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 15(1): 5–17.Google Scholar
Verrelli, BC, Tishkoff, SA, Stone, AC, and Touchman, JW (2006). Contrasting histories of G6PD molecular evolution and malarial resistance in humans and chimpanzees. Mol Biol Evol 23(8): 1592–1601.Google Scholar
Wang, D-Y, Fulthorpe, R, Liss, SN, and Edwards, EA (2004). Identification of estrogen-responsive genes by complementary deoxyribonucleic acid microarray and characterization of a novel early estrogen-induced gene: EEIG1. Mol Endocrinol 18(2): 402–411.Google Scholar
Weinshilboum, RM and Sladek, SL (1980). Mercaptopurine pharmacogenetics: monogenic inheritance of erythrocyte thiopurine methyltransferase activity. Am J Hum Genet 32(5): 651–662.Google Scholar
Wejse, C, Olesen, R, Rabna, P, et al. (2007). Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D in a West African population of tuberculosis patients and unmatched healthy controls. Am J Clin Nutr 86(5): 1376–1383.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willett, WC, Koplan, JP, Nugent, R, et al. (2006). Prevention of chronic disease by means of diet and lifestyle changes. In Jamison, DT, Breman, JG, Measham, AR, et al., eds., Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries, 2nd edn. World Bank.Google Scholar
Wu, X, Zhou, T, Cao, N, Ni, J, and Wang, X (2015). Role of vitamin D metabolism and activity on carcinogenesis. Oncol Res 22(3): 129–137.Google Scholar
Yahia, ZA, Adam, AA, Elgizouli, M, et al. (2014). Epstein Barr virus: a prime candidate of breast cancer aetiology in Sudanese patients. Infect Agent Cancer 9(1): 9.Google Scholar
Yang, H-C, Chen, T-L, Wu, Y-H, et al. (2013). Glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency enhances germ cell apoptosis and causes defective embryogenesis in Caenorhabditis elegans. Cell Death Dis 4: e616.Google Scholar
Ye, Z and Song, H (2005). Glutathione s-transferase polymorphisms (GSTM1, GSTP1 and GSTT1) and the risk of acute leukaemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Cancer 41(7): 980–989.Google Scholar
Yuille, M, Condie, A, Hudson, C, et al. (2002). Relationship between glutathione S-transferase M1, T1, and P1 polymorphisms and chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Blood 99(11): 4216–4218.Google Scholar
Zaza, G, Cheok, M, Krynetskaia, N, et al. (2010). Thiopurine pathway. Pharmacogenet Genomics 20(9): 573–574.Google Scholar
Zhang, Z, Liew, CW, Handy, DE, et al. (2010). High glucose inhibits glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, leading to increased oxidative stress and beta-cell apoptosis. FASEB J 24(5): 1497–1505.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×