Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-m6dg7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T07:29:53.633Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

37 - Winter Storms

from SECTION B - ENVIRONMENTAL EVENTS

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 August 2011

By
John M. Wightman ,
James A. Fenno  and
William H. Dice
Edited by
Kristi L. Koenig  and
Carl H. Schultz
Kristi L. Koenig
Affiliation:
University of California, Irvine
Carl H. Schultz
Affiliation:
University of California, Irvine
Get access

Summary

OVERVIEW

Severe winter storms can be life-changing events that isolate and disrupt families; shut down schools, businesses, and government; prevent air, ground, and water transportation; and destroy large components of agricultural and service industries. Public safety can be threatened when roads are impassable, power grids are down, and telecommunications are inoperable.

Humans can exist in extremely cold environments, but their physiology remains geared mostly for the tropics from which the species originated. Adaptation to cold is most importantly behavioral. Heat loss is slowed or prevented by avoiding contact with cold surfaces and ingestion of cold substances, sheltering from wind and precipitation, wearing of protective clothing, and physically moving to a warmer location. Peripheral vasoconstriction and shivering only modestly and temporarily protect humans exposed to significantly cold temperatures. The consequences of many winter storms make it difficult or impossible for unprepared or unassisted humans to achieve the behavioral modifications necessary to mitigate the direct effects of cold or to obtain the resources needed to maintain health.

This chapter discusses the problems winter storms pose, how they fit into the continuum from minor annoyance to major disaster, and what can be done to prepare for future events that threaten the welfare of those in their paths. The disaster life cycle – mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery – used here includes a continuous loop of planning and preparedness; warning, if any; the event itself; immediate response, which is almost always local; rapid assessment to identify needed resources; definitive response with ongoing surveillance and repeated assessments; recovery to baseline; and system improvements to increase preparedness for the next event.

Keywords

disaster medicineemergency managementincident command structurewinter stormslocal medical responderspublic educational effort
Type
Chapter
Information
Koenig and Schultz's Disaster Medicine
Comprehensive Principles and Practices
 , pp. 586 - 608
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Crawshaw, LI, Wallace, HL, Dasgupta, A. Thermoregulation. In: Auerbach, PS, ed. Wilderness Medicine. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Mosby-Elsevier; 2007:110–124.
,Federal Emergency Management Agency. Presidential Disaster Declarations: December 24, 1964 to March 3, 2007. Available at: http://www.fema.gov/pdf/hazard/map/declarationsmap1964_07.pdf. Accessed November 25, 2008.
,Federal Emergency Management Agency. Major Disaster Declarations, Emergency Declarations, and Fire Management Assistance Declarations. Available at: http://www.fema.gov/news/disasters.fema. Accessed November 25, 2008.
,National Climactic Data Center/National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration. 1980–2006 Billion Dollar US Weather Disasters. Available at: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/img/reports/billion/disasters2006.pdf. Accessed November 25, 2008.
,National Climactic Data Center/National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration. Billion Dollar Storms. Available at: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/reports/billionz.html#chron. Accessed November 25, 2008.
Koenig, KL, Dinerman, N, Kuehl, AE. Disaster nomenclature – a functional impact approach: the PICE system. Acad Emerg Med. 1996;3:723–727.Google Scholar
Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Kyrill. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrill_/storm. Accessed November 25, 2008.
Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. January 2007 North American Ice Storm. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_ice_storm_of_2007. November 25, 2008.
,National Weather Service/National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration. National Weather Service Glossary. Available at: http://www.nws.noaa.gov/glossary. Accessed November 25, 2008.
,The Weather Channel. Types of Winter Precipitation. Available at: http://www.weather.com/encyclopedia/winter/precip.html. Accessed November 25, 2008.
,The Weather Channel. Types of Winter Storms. Available at: http://www.weather.com/encyclopedia/winter/types.html. Accessed November 25, 2008.
Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. North American Ice Storm of 1998. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_ice_storm_of_1998. Accessed November 25, 2008.
Riddex, L, Dellgar, U. The ice storm in eastern Canada 1998: KAMEDO-Report No 74. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2001;16:50–52.Google Scholar
Hamilton, J. Quebec's Ice Storm '98: “all cards wild, all rules broken” in Quebec's shell-shocked hospitals. CMAJ. 1998;158:520–524.Google Scholar
Nixdorf-Miller, A, Hunsaker, DM, Hunsaker, JC. Hypothermia and hyperthermia medicolegal investigation of morbidity and mortality from exposure to environmental temperature extremes. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2006;130:1297–1304.Google Scholar
Dixon, PG, Brommer, DM, Hedquist, BC, et al. Heat mortality versus cold mortality: a study of conflicting databases in the United States. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2005;86:937–943.Google Scholar
Kilbourne, EM. Cold environments. In: Gregg, MB, ed. The Public Health Consequences of Disasters. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control; 1989:63–68.
Baker-Blocker, A. Winter weather and cardiovascular mortality in Minneapolis–St Paul. Am J Public Health.1982;72:261–265.Google Scholar
Gorjanc, ML, Flanders, WD, VanDerslice, J, Malilay, J. Effects of temperature and snowfall on mortality in Pennsylvania. Am J Epidemiol. 1999;149:1152–1160.Google Scholar
Aylin, P, Morris, S, Wakefield, J, et al. Temperature, housing, deprivation and their relationship to excess winter mortality in Great Britain, 1986–1996. Int J Epidemiol. 2001;30:1100–1108.Google Scholar
Sisitsky, A. Winter storm. In: Ciottone, GR, Anderson, PD, Auf der Heide, E, et al., eds. Disaster Medicine. Philadelphia: Elsevier-Mosby; 2006:499–501.
Lane, AQ, Barnes, SB. Winter storms. In: Hogan, Burstein, JI, eds. Disaster Medicine.2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007:236–247.
,National Weather Service. Winter Storms: The Deceptive Killers. Washington DC: National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration; 2001.
Glass, RI, O'Hare, P, Conrad, JL. Health consequences of the snow disaster in Massachusetts, February 6, 1978. Am J Public Health. 1979;69:1047–1049.Google Scholar
Faich, G, Rose, R. Blizzard morbidity and mortality: Rhode Island, 1978. Am J Public Health. 1979;69:1050–1052.Google Scholar
Geehr, EC, Salluzzo, R, Bosco, S, et al. Emergency health impact of a severe storm. Am J Emerg Med. 1989;7:598–604.Google Scholar
Attia, MW. The blizzard of 1996: a pediatric emergency department. Prehosp Emerg Care. 1998;2:285–288.Google Scholar
Broder, JA, Mehrotra, A, Tintinalli, J. Injuries from the 2002 North Carolina ice storm, and strategies for prevention. Injury. 2005; 36:21–26.Google Scholar
Ráliš, ZA. Epidemic of fractures during periods of snow and ice. BMJ. 1981;282:603–605.Google Scholar
Avery, JG. Fractures during ice and snow. BMJ. 1982;284:270. (Letter)Google Scholar
Wood, L. Fractures during ice and snow. BMJ. 1982;284:425. (Letter)Google Scholar
Manning, DB, Jones, C, Bruce, M. Fractures during ice and snow. BMJ. 1982;284:508–509. (Letter)Google Scholar
Lewis, LM, Lasater, LC. Frequency, distribution, and management of injuries due to an ice storm in a large metropolitan area. South Med J. 1994;87:174–178.Google Scholar
Smith, RW, Nelson, DR. Fractures and other injuries from falls after an ice storm. Am J Emerg Med. 1998;16:52–55.Google Scholar
Hartling, L, Pickett, W, Brison, RJ. The injury experience observed in two emergency departments in Kingston, Ontario during “Ice Storm '98.” Can J Public Health. 1999;90:95–98.Google Scholar
Ernst, A, Zibrak, JD. Carbon monoxide poisoning. N Engl J Med. 1998;399:1603–1608.Google Scholar
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Carbon monoxide poisonings associated with snow-obstructed vehicle exhaust systems – Philadelphia and New York City, January 1996. MMWR. 1996;45:1–3.Google Scholar
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Unintentional carbon monoxide poisoning following a winter storm – Washington, January 1993. MMWR. 1993;42:109–111.Google Scholar
Houck, PM, Hampson, NB. Epidemic carbon monoxide poisoning following a winter storm. J Emerg Med. 1997;15:469–473.Google Scholar
Daley, WR, Smith, A, Paz-Argandona, E, et al. An outbreak of carbon monoxide poisoning after a major ice storm in Maine. J Emerg Med. 2000;18:87–93.Google Scholar
Hartling, L, Brison, RJ, Pickett, W. Cluster of unintentional carbon monoxide poisonings presenting to the emergency departments in Kingston, Ontario during “Ice Storm '98.” Can J Public Health. 1998;89:388–390.Google Scholar
Ghim, M, Severance, HW. Ice storm-related carbon monoxide poisonings in North Carolina: a reminder. South Med J. 2004;97:1060–1065.Google Scholar
Glass, RI, Zack, MM. Increase in deaths from ischaemic heart disease after blizzards. Lancet. 1979;1:485–487.Google Scholar
Spitalnic, SJ, Jagminas, L, Cox, J. An association between snowfall and ED presentation of cardiac arrest. Am J Emerg Med. 1996;14:572–573.Google Scholar
Glass, RI, Wiesenthal, AM, Zack, MM, Preston, M. Risk factors for myocardial infarction associated with the Chicago snow storm of Jan 13–15, 1979. JAMA. 1981;245:164–165.Google Scholar
Anderson, TW, Rochard, C. Cold snaps, snowfall and sudden death from ischemic heart disease. CMAJ. 1979;121:1580–1583.Google Scholar
Kunst, AE, Groenhof, F, Mackenbach, JP. The association between two windchill indices and daily mortality variation in the Netherlands. Am J Public Health. 1994;84:1738–1742.Google Scholar
Franklin, BA, Hogan, P, Bonzheim, K, et al. Cardiac demands of heavy snow shoveling. JAMA. 1995;273:880–882.Google Scholar
Persinger, MA, Ballannce, SE. Snow fall and heart attacks. J Psychol. 1993;127:243–252.Google Scholar
Blindauer, KM, Rubin, C, Morse, DL, McGeehin, M. The 1996 New York blizzard: impact on noninjury emergency visits. Am J Emerg Med. 1999;17:23–27.Google Scholar
Noller, KL, Resseguie, LJ, Voss, V. The effect of changes in atmospheric pressure on the occurrence of spontaneous onset of labor in term pregnancies. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996;174:1192–1199.Google Scholar
Danzl, DF. Accidental hypothermia. In: Auerbach, PS, ed. Wilderness Medicine. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Mosby-Elsevier; 2007:125–160.
Giesbrecht, GG, Steinman, AM. Immersion in cold water. In: Auerbach, PS, ed. Wilderness Medicine. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Mosby-Elsevier; 2007:160–188.
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hypothermia-related deaths – Utah, 2000, and United States 1979–1998. MMWR. 2002;51(4):76–78.Google Scholar
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hypothermia-related deaths – United States 1999–2002 and 2005. MMWR. 2006;55:282–284.Google Scholar
,American Medical Association. All-hazards course overview and DISASTER paradigm. In: Basic Disaster Life Support Provider Manual. version 2.5. Chicago, IL: American Medical Association; 2004:1–27.
,American Medical Association. Application of the DISASTER paradigm and RED survey. In: Advanced Disaster Life Support Provider Manual. version 2.0. Chicago, IL: American Medical Association; 2004:1–19.
,National Weather Service/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. NOAA Weather Radio All Hazards. Available at: http://www.weather.gov/nwr/. Accessed November 25, 2008.
Zielinski, GA. A classification scheme for winter storms in the eastern and central United States with an emphasis on nor'easters. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2002;83:37–51.Google Scholar
Sinks, T. Hazards of working in cold weather include frostbite, hypothermia. Occup Health Safety. 1988;57:20–25.Google Scholar
Lipman, GS, Castellani, JW. Nonfreezing cold-induced injuries. In: Auerbach, PS, ed. Wilderness Medicine. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Mosby-Elsevier; 2007:188–195.
McCauley, RL, Killyon, GW, Smith, DJ, et al. Frostbite. In: Auerbach, PS, ed. Wilderness Medicine. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Mosby-Elsevier; 2007:195–210.
Madden, JF, O'Conner, RE, Evans, J. The range of medication storage temperatures in aeromedical emergency medical services. Prehosp Emerg Care. 1999;3:27–30.Google Scholar
DuBois, WC. Drug storage temperatures in rescue vehicles. J Emerg Med. 2000;18:345–348.Google Scholar
Helm, M, Castner, T, Lampl, L. Environmental temperature stress on drugs in prehospital emergency medical service. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2003;47:425–429.Google Scholar
Neuffer, MC, McDivitt, J, Rose, D, et al. Hemostatic dressings for the first responder: a review. Mil Med. 2004;169:716–720.Google Scholar
Pusateri, AE, Holcomb, JB, Kheirabadi, BS, et al. Making sense of the preclinical literature on advanced hemostatic products. J Trauma. 2006;60(3):674–682.Google Scholar
Jurkovich, GJ. Environmental cold-induced injury. Surg Clin North Am. 2007;87:247–267.Google Scholar
Simon, TD, Soep, JB, Hollister, JR. Pernio in pediatrics. Pediatrics. 2005;116:472–475.Google Scholar
Rustin, MH, Newton, JA, Smith, NP, et al. The treatment of chilblains with nifedipine: the results of a pilot study. Br J Dermatol. 1989;120:267–275.Google Scholar
White, JC, Scoville, WB. Trench foot and immersion foot. N Engl J Med. 1945;232:415–422.Google Scholar
,Prehospital Trauma Life Support Committee, National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians. Thermal trauma: injuries produced by heat and cold. In: McSwain, NE, Salomone, JP, Frame, SB, eds. Basic and Advanced Prehospital Trauma Life Support. 4th ed. St Louis, MO: Mosby; 2007:246–263.
Biem, J, Classen, D, Koehncke, N, Dosman, J. Out of the cold: management of hypothermia and frostbite. CMAJ. 2003;168:305–311.Google Scholar
Urschel, JD. Frostbite: predisposing factors and predictors of poor outcome. J Trauma. 1990;30:340–342.Google Scholar
Bracker, MD. Environmental and thermal injury. Clin Sports Med. 1992;11:419–436.Google Scholar
Syme, D, ,International Commission for Alpine Rescue Medical Commission. Position paper: on-site treatment of frostbite for mountaineers. High Alt Med Biol. 2002;3:297–298.Google Scholar
Giesbrecht, GG. Prehospital treatment of hypothermia. Wilderness Environ Med. 2001;12:24–31.Google Scholar
,American Heart Association. Part 10.4: hypothermia. Circulation. 2005;112(24 Suppl):IV-136–IV-138.Google Scholar
Ho, JD, Heegaard, WG, Brunette, DD. Successful transcutaneous pacing in 2 severely hypothermic patients. Ann Emerg Med. 2007;49:678–681.Google Scholar
Lawless, J. Aborted air medical missions: a 4-year quality review of a Canadian province-wide air medical program. Air Med J. 2005;24:79–82.Google Scholar
Stewart, RL, Black, GB. Snowmobile trauma: 10 years' experience at Manitoba's tertiary trauma centre. Can J Surg. 2004;47:90–94.Google Scholar
Haynes, CD, Webb, WA, Fenno, CR. Chain saw injuries: review of 330 cases. J Trauma. 1980;20:772–776.Google Scholar
Istre, GR, Tinnell, C, Ouimette, D, et al. Surveillance for injuries: cluster of finger amputations from snowblowers. Public Health Rep. 1989;104:155–157.Google Scholar
Proano, L, Partridge, R. Descriptive epidemiology of a cluster of hand injuries from snowblowers. J Emerg Med. 2002;22:341–344.Google Scholar
Owens, BD, Wenke, JC. Early wound irrigation improves the ability to remove bacteria. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2007;89:1723–1726.Google Scholar
Angerås, MH, Brandberg, A, Falk, A, Seeman, T. Comparison between sterile saline and tap water for the cleaning of traumatic wounds. Eur J Surg. 1992;158:347–350.Google Scholar
Alwis, W. Fingertip injuries. Emerg Med Aust. 2006;18:229–237.Google Scholar
Broder, KR, Cortese, MM, Iskander, JK, et al. Preventing tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis among adolescents: use of tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid and acellular pertussis vaccines recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR. 2006;55(RR-3):1–34.Google Scholar
Zehtabchi, S. Evidence-based emergency medicine (critically appraised topic: the role of antibiotic prophylaxis for prevention of infection in patients with simple hand lacerations. Ann Emerg Med. 2007;49:682–689.Google Scholar
DeGroot, DW, Castellani, JW, Williams, JO, Amoroso, PJ. Epidemiology of U.S. Army cold weather injuries,1980–1999. Aviat Space Environ Med. 2003;74:564–570.Google Scholar
Bruen, KJ, Ballard, JR, Morris, SE, et al. Reduction of the incidence of amputation in frostbite injury with thrombolytic therapy. Arch Surg. 2007;142:546–51; discussion 551–553.Google Scholar
Barker, JR, Haws, MJ, Brown, RE, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of severe frostbite injuries. Ann Plast Surg. 1997;38:275–279.Google Scholar
Cauchy, E, Chetaille, E, Lefevre, M, et al. The role of bone scanning in severe frostbite of the extremities: a retrospective study of 88 cases. Eur J Nucl Med. 2000;27:497–502.Google Scholar
Cauchy, E, Marsigny, B, Allamel, G, et al. The value of Technetium 99 scintigraphy in the prognosis of amputation in severe frostbite injuries of the extremities: a retrospective study of 92 severe frostbite injuries. J Hand Surg Am. 2000;25:969–978.Google Scholar
Ulrich, AS, Rathlev, NK. Hypothermia and localized cold injuries. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2004;22:281–298.Google Scholar
Delaney, KA, Vassallo, SU, Larkin, GL, Goldfrank, LR. Rewarming rates in urban patients with hypothermia: prediction of underlying infection. Acad Emerg Med. 2006;13:913–921.Google Scholar
Luna, GK, Maier, RV, Pavlin, EG, et al. Incidence and effect of hypothermia in seriously injured patients. J Trauma. 1987;27:1014–1018.Google Scholar
McInerney, JJ. Accidental hypothermia and active rewarming: the metabolic and inflammatory changes observed above and below 32 degrees C. Emerg Med J. 2002;19:219–223.Google Scholar
Rohrer, MJ, Natale, AM. Effects of hypothermia on the coagulation cascade. Crit Care Med. 1992;20:1402–1405.Google Scholar
Giesbrecht, GG. Emergency treatment of hypothermia. Emerg Med (Fremantle). 2001;13:9–16.Google Scholar
Walpoth, BH, Walpoth-Aslan, BN, Mattle, HP, et al. Outcome of survivors of accidental deep hypothermia and circulatory arrest treated with extracorporeal blood warming. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:1500–1505.Google Scholar
Ruttmann, E, Weissenbacher, A, Ulmer, H, et al. Prolonged extracorporeal membrane oxygenation-assisted support provides improved survival in hypothermic patients with cardiocirculatory arrest. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2007;134:594–600.Google Scholar
Wik, L, Kiil, S. Use of an automatic mechanical chest compression device (LUCAS) as a bridge to establishing cardiopulmonary bypass for a patient with hypothermic cardiac arrest. Resuscitation. 2005;66:391–394.Google Scholar
Hernandez, E, Praga, M, Alcazar, JM, et al. Hemodialysis for treatment of accidental hypothermia. Nephron. 1993;63:214–216.Google Scholar
Kjaergaard, B, Bach, P. Warming of patients with accidental hypothermia using warm water pleural lavage. Resuscitation. 2006;68:203–207.Google Scholar
Plaisier, BR. Thoracic lavage in accidental hypothermia with cardiac arrest – report of a case and review of the literature. Resuscitation. 2005;66:99–104.Google Scholar
Jessen, K, Hagelsten, JO. Peritoneal dialysis in the treatment of profound accidental hypothermia. Aviat Space Environ Med. 1978;49:426–429.Google Scholar
Tomaszewski, C. Carbon monoxide. In: Ford, MD, Delaney, KA, Ling, LJ, et al., eds. Clinical Toxicology. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2001:657–667.
Henry, CR, Satran, D, Lindgren, B, et al. Myocardial injury and long-term mortality following moderate to severe carbon monoxide poisoning. JAMA. 2006;295:398–402.Google Scholar
Satran, D, Henry, CR, Adkinson, C, et al. Cardiovascular manifestations of moderate to severe carbon monoxide poisoning. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45:1513–1516.Google Scholar
Raub, JA, Benignus, VA. Carbon monoxide and the nervous system. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2002;26:925–940.Google Scholar
Nelson, LS, Hoffman, RS. Inhaled toxins. In: Marx, JA, Hockberger, RS, Walls, RM, et al., eds. Rosen's Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice. 6th ed. vol 3. Philadelphia: Mosby-Elsevier; 2006:2432–2441.
Lueken, RJ, Heffner, AC, Parks, PD. Treatment of severe carbon monoxide poisoning using a portable hyperbaric oxygen chamber. Ann Emerg Med. 2006;48:319–322.Google Scholar
Weaver, LK, Valentine, KJ, Hopkins, RO. Carbon monoxide poisoning: risk factors for cognitive sequelae and the role of hyperbaric oxygen. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;176:491–497.Google Scholar
Weaver, LK, Hopkins, RO, Chan, KJ, et al. Hyperbaric oxygen for acute carbon monoxide poisoning. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:1057–1067.Google Scholar
Thom, SR. Hyperbaric-oxygen therapy for acute carbon monoxide poisoning. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:1105–1106.Google Scholar
Rucker, J, Tesler, J, Fedorko, L, et al. Normocapnia improves cerebral oxygen delivery during conventional oxygen therapy in carbon monoxide-exposed research subjects. Ann Emerg Med. 2002;40:611–618.Google Scholar
Takeuchi, A, Vesely, A, Rucker, J, et al. A simple “new” method to accelerate clearance of carbon monoxide. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;161:1816–1819.Google Scholar
Schultz, CH, Koenig, KL, Noji, EK. Disaster preparedness. In: Marx, JA, Hockberger, RS, Walls, RM, et al., eds. Rosen's Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice. 6th ed. vol 3. Philadelphia: Mosby-Elsevier; 2006:3010–3021.
Dealing with power failure: how Spokane hospitals survived the ice storm. Hosp Secur Safe Manage. 1997;17:3–4.
The ice storm of the century: how affected hospitals and communities dealt with the challenges of a unique, prolonged emergency. Hosp Secur Safe Manage. 1998;18:5–9.
The Oklahoma ice storm: a Y2K disaster that arrived one year later – how two rural hospitals coped and what they learned. Hosp Secur Safe Manage. 2001;22:5–8.
Hunter, DG, MacDonald, D, Peever, L. Ice storm: a crisis management diary. Hosp Q. 1998;1:69–73.Google Scholar
,Department of Defense. A Mass Casualty Care Strategy for Biological Terrorism Incidents: Neighborhood Emergency Help Center. Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD: Homeland Defense Office, United States Army Soldier and Biological Chemical Command; May 2001.
,Department of Defense. A Mass Casualty Care Strategy for Biological Terrorism Incidents: Acute Care Center. Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD: Homeland Defense Office, United States Army Soldier and Biological Chemical Command; December 2001.
Malilay, J. Public health assessments in disaster settings: recommendations for a multidisciplinary approach. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2000;15:167–172.Google Scholar
Malilay, J, Flanders, WD, Brogan, D. A modified cluster-sampling method for post-disaster rapid assessment of needs. Bull World Health Organ. 1996;74:399–405.Google Scholar
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Rapid Community Needs Assessment Using Modified Cluster Sampling Methods. Available at: http://www.bt.cdc.gov/masscasualties/research/community.asp. Accessed December 3, 2008.
Hlady, WG, Quenemoen, , Armenia-Cope, RR, et al. Use of a modified cluster sampling method to perform rapid needs assessment after Hurricane Andrew. Ann Emerg Med. 1994; 23:719–725.Google Scholar
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Community needs assessment and morbidity surveillance following an ice storm – Maine, January 1998. MMWR. 1998;47(17):351–354.Google Scholar
,Federal Emergency Management Agency. 9523.1 Snow Assistance Policy. Available at: http://www.fema.gov/government/grant/pa/9523_1.shtm. Accessed December 3, 2008.
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Public Health Information Network. Messaging Services. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/phin/library/documents/pdf/111759_PHINmessaging.pdf. Accessed December 3, 2008.
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. IT Functions and Specifications (also known as the Public Health Information Network Functions and Specifications) Version 1.2. Available at: http://www.bt.cdc.gov/planning/continuationguidance/docs/appendix-4.doc. Accessed December 3, 2008.
,National Disaster Education Coalition. Winter Storm. Available at: http://www.redcross.org/images/pdfs/code/winter_storms.pdf. Accessed December 3, 2008.
Collins, KJ, Dore, C, Exton-Smith, AN, et al. Accidental hypothermia and impaired temperature homoeostasis in the elderly. BMJ. 1977;1(6057):353–356.Google Scholar
,Department of Health. Keep Warm – Keep Well. Available at: http://www.dh.gov.uk/keepwarmkeepwell. Accessed December 3, 2008.
Wrenn, K, Conners, GP. Carbon monoxide poisoning during ice storms: a tale of two cities. J Emerg Med. 1997;15:465–467.Google Scholar
Sternbach, G. Winter storms and great imitators. J Emerg Med. 1997;15:531–532. (Editorial)Google Scholar
Lin, G, Conners, GP. Does public education reduce ice storm-related carbon monoxide exposure?J Emerg Med. 2005;29:417–420.Google Scholar
Krenzelok, EP, Roth, R, Full, R. Carbon monoxide…the silent killer with an audible solution. Am J Emerg Med. 1996;14:484–486.Google Scholar
Yoon, SS, Macdonald, SC, Parrish, RG. Deaths from unintentional carbon monoxide poisoning and potential for prevention with carbon monoxide detectors. JAMA. 1998;279:685–687.Google Scholar
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Use of carbon monoxide alarms to prevent poisonings during a power outage – North Carolina, December 2002. MMWR. 2004;53:189–192.Google Scholar
,National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Winter Storms…the Deceptive Killers: A Guide to Survival. Available at: http://www.weather.gov/om/brochures/wntrstm.htm. Accessed December 3, 2008.
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Extreme Cold: A Prevention Guide to Promote Your Personal Health and Safety – Prepare Your Car for Winter. Available at: http://www.bt.cdc.gov/disasters/winter/guide.asp#car. Accessed December 3, 2008.
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Public health impact of a snow disaster. MMWR. 1982;31:695–696.Google Scholar
Lalikos, JF, Hayden, DB, Rothkopf, DM. Untitled letter. J Trauma. 1997;42:348.Google Scholar
,American Geriatrics Society, British Geriatrics Society, and American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons Panel on Falls Prevention. Guideline for the Prevention of Falls in Older Persons. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2001;49:664–672.Google Scholar
Kannus, P, Khan, KM. Prevention of falls and subsequent injuries in elderly people: a long way to go in both research and practice. CMAJ. 2001;165:587–588.Google Scholar
Betz, M, Li, G. Injury prevention and control. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2007;25:901–914.Google Scholar
,National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. National EMS Research Agenda. Washington, DC: Department of Transportation and Department of Health and Human Services; 2001.
Quick, G. A paradigm for multidisciplinary disaster research: the Oklahoma City experience. J Emerg Med. 1998;16:621–630.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×