Masculinity, Christianity, and (Non)Violence

Summary

Most scholars agree that masculinity is a complex social construct that varies between cultures and changes over centuries. Despite this variability, masculinity is usually linked with strength and power. According to the Australian sociologist Raewyn Connell, multiple types of masculinity coexist in every society. Linking masculinity with power produces a dominant, culturallyendorsed form of masculinity – a ‘hegemonic masculinity’ – through the marginalisation or subordination of other forms of masculinities as well as femininities. The conversion to Christianity in 999/1000 introduced a new type of masculinity to Iceland. Unlike their secular counterparts, men of the Church had to establish their authority without being able to adhere to many of the outward signs of a hegemonic masculinity such as carrying weapons or being sexually active. Nevertheless, control over women and their household was still a possible facet of clerical identities. In Iceland, clerical marriage and concubinage continued well into the thirteenth century. A formal ban against clerical marriage was included in the Christian law of Bishop Árni Þorláksson in 1275 but many clerics nevertheless continued to keep concubines.

It was not just the conversion which affected masculinities in Iceland during this period. Imported, translated literature also brought new ideas about masculinity to Iceland and influenced the representation of masculinity in vernacular literature. In chivalric-inspired romances, knights were portrayed as brave, elegant and also able to control their sexual desires, whereas the urges of heathen characters could not be subdued. In translated hagiographic literature, male martyrs show physical strength and endurance similar to these chivalric heroes, and their female counterparts are admired for acting in a manly way: for example, in Margrétar saga, St Margrét conquers a demon by pulling him by the hair and stepping on him. The demon expresses his surprise that a young virgin has overpowered him and says: ‘Mér þætti ekki til koma ef karlmaðr hefði þetta gert’ (I would not have been surprised if a man had done this). Strength is not just related to physical ability in hagiography, as overcoming sexual desire and lust was also seen as a sign of strength. Since the masculinity of the clergy could not be defined by their bravery in battle or their sexual virility, religious literature emphasized that their staying chaste also required strength.