Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-6bf8c574d5-w79xw Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-27T07:05:39.617Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

13 - Priming Culture(s): How Theories and Methods Inspire Each Other

from Part 3 - Culture and Assessment

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 January 2021

By
Chi-yue Chiu  and
Yuanyuan Shi
Edited by
Michael Bender  and
Byron G. Adams
Michael Bender
Affiliation:
Universiteit van Tilburg, The Netherlands
Byron G. Adams
Affiliation:
Universiteit van Tilburg, The Netherlands
Get access

Summary

Scientifically significant phenomena inspire new theories and methods. In this chapter, we use research examples in multicultural psychology (Hong, Morris, Chiu & Benet-Martinez, 2000; Morris, Chiu, & Liu, 2015) to illustrate how cross-cultural phenomena (cultural frame-switching, psychological responses to cultural mixing) inspire new experimental methods in cross-cultural research (cultural priming, bicultural priming, experimental simulation of cultural mixing), which in turn motivate new perspectives to culture and psychology, and give psychology a stronger voice in important intellectual debates related to the cultural effects of globalization. As a result, the psychological science of culture is not limited to constructing abstract categorical representations of cultures from cross-cultural survey data and inferring cultural processes behind the closed doors of experimental laboratories. Instead, psychology is more prepared than ever to make major theoretical and methodological contributions to an expansive and inclusive social science of globalization.

Keywords

cultural primingbicultural primingcultural frame-switchingglobalizationcultural mixingmulticulturalismpolyculturalism
Type
Chapter
Information
Methods and Assessment in Culture and Psychology , pp. 271 - 295
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adams, B. G., & van de Vijver, F. J. (2015). The many faces of expatriate identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 49, 322–331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alter, A. L., & Kwan, V. S. Y. (2009). Cultural sharing in a global village: Evidence for extracultural cognition in European Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 742–760.Google Scholar
Aydinli, A., & Bender, M. (2015). Cultural priming as a tool to understand multiculturalism and culture. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1).Google Scholar
Bender, M., & Ng, S. H. (2009). Dynamic biculturalism: Socially connected and individuated unique selves in a globalized world. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 3, 199–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benet-Martínez, V., & Haritatos, J. (2005). Bicultural identity integration (BII): components and psychosocial antecedents. Journal of Personality, 73, 1015–1049.Google Scholar
Benet-Martinez, V., & Hong, Y-y. (2014). The Oxford handbook of multicultural identity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Benet-Martinez, V., Leu, J., Lee, F., & Morris, M. W. (2002). Negotiating biculturalism: Cultural frame switching in biculturals with oppositional versus compatible cultural identities. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 33, 492–516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 46, 5–34.Google Scholar
Berry, J. W. (2008). Globalisation and acculturation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 32, 328–336.Google Scholar
Bohner, G., Siebler, F., Gonzalez, R., Haye, A., & Schmidt, E. A. (2008). Situational flexibility of in-group-related attitudes: A single category IAT study of people with dual national identity. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 11, 301–317.Google Scholar
Brewer, M. B., & Gardner, W. (1996). Who Is this “we”? Levels of collective Identity and self representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 83–93.Google Scholar
Briley, D. A., Morris, M. W., & Simonson, I. (2000). Reasons as carriers of culture: Dynamic versus dispositional models of cultural influence on decision-making. Journal of Consumer Research, 27, 157–178.Google Scholar
Buchtel, E. (2014). Cultural sensitivity or cultural stereotyping? Positive and negative effects of a cultural psychology class. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 39, 40–52.Google Scholar
Chen, F. F. (2008). What happens if we compare chopsticks with forks? The impact of making inappropriate comparisons in cross-cultural research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1005–1018.Google Scholar
Chen, X., Leung, A. K., Yang, D. Y. J., Chiu, C-y., Li, Z., & Cheng, S. Y. Y. (2016). Cultural threats in culturally mixed encounters hamper creative performance for individuals with lower openness to experience. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 47, 1321–1334.Google Scholar
Cheon, B. K., Christopoulos, G., & Hong, Y-y. (2016). Disgust associated with culture mixing: Why and who? Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 47(10), 1268–1285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chiao, C. Y., Harada, T., Komeda, H., Li, Z., Mano, Y., Saito, D., Parrish, T. B., Sadato, N., & Iidaka, T. (2010). Dynamic cultural influences on neural representations of the self. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22, 1–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chiu, C-y., & Cheng, S. Y-y. (2007). Toward a social psychology of culture and globalization: Some social cognitive consequences of activating two cultures simultaneously. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 1, 84–100.Google Scholar
Chiu, C-y., Chia, S. I., & Wan, W. (2015). Cross-cultural measures of values, personality and beliefs. In Boyle, G., & Saklofske, D. H. (eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological constructs (pp. 756–772). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Chiu, C-y., Gelfand, M., Yamagishi, T., Shteynberg, G., & Wan, C. (2010). Intersubjective culture: The role of intersubjective perceptions in cross-cultural research. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 482–493.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chiu, C-y., Gries, P., Torelli, C. J., & Cheng, S. Y-Y. (2011). Toward a social psychology of globalization. Journal of Social Issues, 67, 663–676.Google Scholar
Chiu, C-y., & Hong, Y. (2005). Cultural competence: Dynamic processes. In Elliot, A. & Dweck, C. S. (eds.), Handbook of motivation and competence (pp. 489–505). New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Chiu, C-y., & Hong, Y. (2006). Social psychology of culture. New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Chiu, C-y., & Kwan, L. Y-y. (2016). Globalization and psychology. Current Opinion in Psychology, 8, 44–48.Google Scholar
Chiu, C-y., Mallorie, L., Keh, H-T., & Law, W. (2009). Perceptions of culture in multicultural space: Joint presentation of images from two cultures increases ingroup attribution of culture-typical characteristics. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40, 282–300.Google Scholar
Chiu, C-y., Morris, M., Hong, Y., & Menon, T. (2000). Motivated cultural cognition: The impact of implicit cultural theories on dispositional attribution varies as a function of need for closure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 78, 247–259.Google Scholar
Chiu, C-y., Ng, S. S-L., & Au, E. (2013). Culture and social cognition. In Carlston, D. (ed.), Oxford handbook of social cognition. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cho, J.,. Morris, M. W., Slepian, M. L., & Tadmor, C. T. (2017). Choosing fusion: The effects of diversity ideologies on preference for culturally mixed experiences. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 69, 163–171.Google Scholar
Cui, N., Xu, L., Wang, T., Qualis, W., & Hu, Y. (2016). How does framing strategy affect evaluation of culturally mixed products? The self-other asymmetry effect. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 2016, 47, 1307–1320.Google Scholar
Davidov, E., Meuleman, B., Cieciuch, J., Schmidt, P., & Billiet, J. (2014). Measurement equivalence in cross-national research. Annual Review of Sociology, 40, 55–75.Google Scholar
De keersmaecker, J., Assche, V. J., & Roets, A. (2016). Need for closure effects on affective and cognitive responses to culture fusion. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 47, 1294–1306.Google Scholar
Ferguson, G. M., Iturbide, M. I., & Gordon, B. P. (2014). Tridimensional (3D) acculturation: Ethnic identity and psychological functioning of tricultural Jamaican immigrants. International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation, 3, 238–251.Google Scholar
Fischer, R. (2011). Cross-cultural training effects on cultural essentialism beliefs and cultural intelligence. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35, 767–775.Google Scholar
Fishbach, A., & Zhang, Y. (2008). Together or apart: When goals and temptations complement versus compete. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 547–559.Google Scholar
Fiske, A., Kitayama, S., Markus, H., & Nisbett, R. (1998). The cultural matrix of social psychology. In Gilbert, D. T., Fiske, S. T., & Lindzey, G. (eds.), Handbook of social psychology (4th ed., vol. 2, pp. 915–981). Boston: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Fu, H-y., Chiu, C-y., Morris, M. W., Young, M. (2007). Spontaneous inferences from cultural cues: Varying responses of cultural insiders and outsiders. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38, 58–75.Google Scholar
Fu, J. H.-Y., Zhang, Z.-X., Li, F., & Leung, Y. K. (2016). Opening the mind: Effect of culture mixing on acceptance of organizational change. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 47(10), 1361–1372.Google Scholar
Galloway, S. (2012). How Hollywood conquered the world (all over again). Retrieved from https://foreignpolicy.com/2012/02/24/how-hollywood-conquered-the-world-all-over-again/ on March 16, 2020.Google Scholar
Gordon, M. M. (1964). Assimilation in American life. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Guan, M., Lee, F., & Cole, E. R. (2012). Complexity of culture: the role of identity and context in bicultural individuals’ body ideals. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18, 247–57.Google Scholar
Haidt, J., McCauley, C., & Rozin, P. (1994). Individual differences in sensitivity to disgust: A scale sampling seven domains of disgust elicitors. Personality and Individual Differences, 16, 701–713Google Scholar
Hao, J., Li, D., Peng, L., Peng, S., & Torelli, C. J. (2016). Advancing our understanding of culture mixing. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 47, 1257–1267.Google Scholar
He, J., & van de Vijver, F. (2012). Bias and equivalence in cross-cultural research. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2, 1–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Science, 33, 61–83.Google Scholar
Higgins, E. T. (1996). Knowledge activation: Accessibility, applicability and salience. In Higgins, E. T. & Kruglanski, A. E. (eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 133–168). New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Hong, Y., Benet-Martinez, V., Chiu, C-y., & Morris, M. W. (2003). Boundaries of cultural influence: Construct activation as a mechanism for cultural differences in social perception. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 34, 453–464.Google Scholar
Hong, Y., & Chiu, C-y. (2001). Toward a paradigm shift: From cultural differences in social cognition to social cognitive mediation of cultural differences. Social Cognition, 19, 118–196.Google Scholar
Hong, Y., Chiu, C-y., & Kung, M. (1997). Bringing culture out in front: Effects of cultural meaning system activation on social cognition. In Leung, K., Kashima, Y., Kim, U., & Yamaguchi, S. (eds.), Progress in Asian social psychology (vol. 1, pp. 139–150). Singapore: Wiley.Google Scholar
Hong, Y., Ip, G., & Chiu, C-y., Morris, M. W., & Menon, T. (2001). Cultural identity and the dynamic construction of the self: Collective duties and individual rights in Chinese and American cultures. Social Cognition, 19, 251–268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hong, Y., Morris, M., Chiu, C-y., & Benet, V. (2000). Multicultural minds: A dynamic constructivist approach to culture and cognition. American Psychologist, 55, 709–720.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hsee, C. (2000). Attribute evaluability and its implications for joint-separate evaluation reversals and beyond. In Kahneman, D. & Tversky, A. (eds.), Choices, values and frames. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Iyengar, S. S., & Lepper, M. R. (1999). Rethinking the value of choice: A cultural perspective on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 349–366.Google Scholar
Keh, H. T., Torelli, C. J., Chiu, C-y., & Hao, J. (2016). Integrative responses to culture mixing in brand name translations: The roles of product self-expressiveness and self-relevance of values among bicultural Chinese consumers. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 47, 1345–1360.Google Scholar
Kesebir, P. (2011). Existential functions of culture: The monumental immortality project. In Leung, A., Chiu, C.-Y., and Hong, Y.-Y. (eds.), Cultural processes: A social psychological perspective (pp. 96–110). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kwan, L. Y.-Y., & Li, D. (2016). The Exception effect: How shopping experiences with local status brands shapes reactions to culture-mixed products. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 47, 1373–1379.Google Scholar
Kwan, L.Y-y., Yap, S., & Chiu, C-y. (2015). Mere exposure affects perceived descriptive norms: Implications for personal preferences and trust. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 129, 48–58.Google Scholar
Leung, A. K-y., & Chiu, C-y. (2008). Interactive effects of multicultural experiences and openness to experience on creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 20, 376–382.Google Scholar
Leung, A. K-y., & Chiu, C-y. (2010). Multicultural experiences, idea receptiveness, and creativity. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 41, 723–741.Google Scholar
Leung, A. K-y., Maddux, W. W., Galinsky, A. D., & Chiu, C-y. (2008). Multicultural experience enhances creativity: The when and how? American Psychologist, 63, 169–181.Google Scholar
Leung, K., & Van De Vijver, F. (1996). Cross-cultural research methodology. In Leong, F. T. L. & Austin, J. T. (eds.), The psychology research handbook: A guide for graduate students and research assistants (pp. 351–358).Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Li, D., Kreuzbauer, R., Chiu, C., & Keh, H. T. (2020). Culturally polite communication: enhancing the effectiveness of the localization strategy. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 51, 49–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maddux, W. W., Adam, H., & Galinsky, A. D. (2010). When in Rome … Learn why the Romans do what they do: How multicultural learning experiences facilitate creativity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 731–741.Google Scholar
Maddux, W. W., and Galinsky, A. D. (2009). Cultural borders and mental barriers: The relationship between living abroad and creativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 1047–1061.Google Scholar
Martin, L., & Shao, B. (2016). Early immersive culture mixing: The key to understanding cognitive and identity differences among multiculturals. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 47, 1409–1429.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGrath, J. E. (1981). Dilemmatics: The study of research choices and dilemmas. American Behavioral Scientist, 25, 179–210.Google Scholar
Miyamoto, Y., Nisbett, R. E., & Masuda, T. (2006). Culture and the physical environment: Holistic versus analytic perceptual affordances. Psychological Science, 17, 113–119.Google Scholar
Morris, M. W., Chiu, C-y., & Liu, Z. (2015). Polycultural psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 631–659.Google Scholar
Morris, M. W., Hong, Y-y., Chiu, C-y., & Liu, Z. (2015). Normology: Integrating insights about social norms to understand cultural dynamics. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 129, 1–13.Google Scholar
Morris, M. W., Mok, A., & Mor, S. (2011). Cultural identity threat: The role of cultural identifications in moderating closure responses to foreign cultural inflow. Journal of Social Issues, 67, 760–773.Google Scholar
Morris, M. W., & Peng, K. (1994). Culture and cause: American and Chinese attributions for social and physical events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 949–971.Google Scholar
O’Connell, L. (2019). Trends in global export volume of trade in goods from 1950 to 2018. Retrieved from www.statista.com/statistics/264682/worldwide-export-volume-in-the-trade-since-1950/ on March 16, 2020.Google Scholar
Oyserman, D., & Lee, S. W. S. (2008). Does culture influence what and how we think? Effects of priming individualism and collectivism. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 311–342.Google Scholar
Oyserman, D., Sorensen, N., Reber, R., & Chen, S. X. (2009). Connecting and separating mind-Sets: Culture as situated cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 217–235.Google Scholar
Peng, L., & Xie, T. (2016). Making similarity versus difference comparison affects perceptions after bicultural exposure and consumer reactions to culturally mixed products. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 47, 1380–1394.Google Scholar
Peng, L. Zheng, X., & Peng, S. (2017). The status quo of culture mixing research and its future directions. Advances in Psychological Science, 25, 1240–1250.Google Scholar
Robertson, R. (1992). Globalization: Social theory and global culture. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Robertson, R. (1995). Globalization: Time–space and homogeneity–heterogeneity. In Featherstone, M., Lash, S., & Robertson, R. (eds.), Global modernities (pp. 25–44). London: Sage.Google Scholar
Runkel, P. J., & McGrath, J. E. (1972). Research on human behavior: A systematic guide to method. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Google Scholar
Schwartz, S. J., Unger, J. B., Zamboanga, B. L., & Szapocznik, J. (2010). Rethinking the concept of acculturation. American Psychologist, 65, 237–251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaxson, N. (2019). Over a third of world trade happens inside multinational corporations. Retrieved from www.taxjustice.net/2019/04/09/over-a-third-or-more-of-world-trade-happens-inside-multinational-corporations/ on March 16, 2020.Google Scholar
Shi, Y., Shi, J., Luo, Y. L. L., & Cai, H. (2016). Understanding exclusionary reactions toward a foreign culture: The influence of intrusive cultural mixing on implicit intergroup bias. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 47, 1335–1344.Google Scholar
Smeekes, A., McKeown, S., & Psaltis, C. (2017). Endorsing narratives under threat: Maintaining perceived collective continuity through the protective power of ingroup narratives in Northern Ireland and Cyprus. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 5, 282–300.Google Scholar
Sui, J., Zhu, Y., & Chiu, C-y. (2007). Bicultural mind, self-construal, and recognition memory: Cultural priming effects on self- and mother-reference effect. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 818–824.Google Scholar
Thomson, R., Yuki, M., Talhelm, T., Schug, J., Kitos, M. Ayanian, A., Becker, J., Beckers, M., Chiu, C-y. et al. (2018). Relational mobility predicts social behaviors in 39 countries and is tied to historical farming and threat. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences, 115, 7521–7526.Google Scholar
Ting-Toomey, Stella. (2015). Identity negotiation theory. In Bennett, J. M. (ed.), The Sage encyclopedia of intercultural competence (pp. 418–422). London: Sage.Google Scholar
Torelli, C. J., Chiu, C-y., Tam, K-P., Au, A. K. C., & Keh, H. T. (2011). Exclusionary reactions to foreign cultures: Effects of simultaneous exposure to cultures in globalized space. Journal of Social Issues, 67, 716–742.Google Scholar
Toulmin, S. (1961). Foresight and understanding. New York: Harper.Google Scholar
Triandis, H. C. (1989). The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review, 96(3), 506–520.Google Scholar
Tushman, M. L. (1977). Special boundary roles in the innovation process. Administrative Science Quarterly, 22, 587–605.Google Scholar
Van de Vijver, F. J. R., & Chasiotis, A. (2010). Making methods meet: Mixed design in cross-cultural research. In Harkness, J. A., Braun, M., Edwards, B., Johnson, T. P., Lyberg, L., Mohler, P. P., Pennell, B.-E., & Smith, T. W. (eds.), Survey methods in multinational, multiregional, and multicultural contexts. (pp. 455–473). New York: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Van de Vijver, F. J. R., & Tanzer, N. K. (2004). Bias and equivalence in cross-cultural assessment: an overview. European Review of Applied Psychology, 54, 119–135.Google Scholar
Verkuyten, M., & Pouliasi, K. (2002). Biculturalism among older children: Cultural frame switching, attributions, self-identification, and attitudes. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 33, 596–609.Google Scholar
Wan, C., Chiu, C-y., Tam, K-p., Lee, S-l., Lau, I. Y-m., & Peng, S-q. (2007). Perceived cultural importance and actual self-importance of values in cultural identification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 337–354.Google Scholar
Wong, R. Y., & Hong, Y. (2005). Dynamic influences of culture on cooperation in the prisoner’s dilemma. Psychological Science, 16, 429–434.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (2020). Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak. Retrieved from www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019 on March 16, 2020.Google Scholar
Wu, Y., Yang, Y., & Chiu, C-y. (2014). Responses to religious norm defection: The case of Hui Chinese Muslims not following the halal diet. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 39, 1–8.Google Scholar
Yamagishi, T., Hashimoto, H., & Schug, J. (2008). Preferences versus strategies as explanations for culture-specific behavior. Psychological Science, 18, 579–584.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, D. Y. J., Chen, X., Xu, J., Preston, J. L., & Chiu, C-y. (2016). Cultural symbolism and spatial separation: Some ways to deactivate exclusionary responses to culture mixing. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 47, 1286–1293.Google Scholar
Yang, K. S., & Bond, M. H. (1980). Ethnic affirmation by Chinese bilinguals. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 11, 411–425.Google Scholar
Zou, X., Tam, K-p., Morris, M. W., Lee, S-l., Lau, Y-m., & Chiu, C-y. (2009). Culture as common sense: Perceived consensus vs. personal beliefs as mechanisms of cultural influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 579–597.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×