Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T05:59:37.106Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

References

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 January 2021

Tracey L. Weldon
Tracey L. Weldon
Affiliation:
University of South Carolina
Get access

Summary

A summary is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Middle-Class African American English , pp. 230 - 248
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abrams, Albert S. (1973). “Minimal auditory cues for distinguishing Black from White talkers,” PhD Dissertation, City University of New York.Google Scholar
Adams, Tony E., Jones, Stacy Holman, and Ellis, Carolyn. (2014). Autoethnography: Understanding Qualitative Research, Oxford and Malden, MA: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. (2013). Americanah, New York and Toronto: Alfred A. Knopf.Google Scholar
Alim, Samy. (2004). You Know My Steez: An Ethnographic and Sociolinguistic Study of Styleshifting in a Black American Speech Community (Publication of the American Dialect Society 89), Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Alim, Samy and Smitherman, Geneva. (2012). Articulate while Black: Barack Obama, Language, and Race in the U.S., Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Alleyne, Mervyn C. (1971). Acculturation and the cultural matrix of creolization. In Hymes, Dell, ed., Pidginization and Creolization of Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 169–86.Google Scholar
Alleyne, Mervyn C. (1980). Comparative Afro-American: An Historical-Comparative Study of English-Based Afro-American Dialects of the New World, Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma.Google Scholar
Anderson, Bridget. L. (2002). Dialect leveling and /ai/ monophthongization among African American Detroiters. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 6(1), 86–98.Google Scholar
Anderson, Bridget. L. (2003). “An acoustic study of southeastern Michigan Appalachian and African American southern migrant vowel systems,” PhD Dissertation, University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Ash, Sharon. (2004). Social class. In Chambers, J. K., Trudgill, Peter, and Schilling-Estes, Natalie, eds., The Handbook of Language Variation and Change, Malden, MA: Blackwell, 402–22.Google Scholar
Audacity 1.3.13-beta (Unicode) Digital Audio Editor. Developed by Richard Ash, Michael Chinen, James Crook, and Roger Dannenberg.Google Scholar
Babel, Anna. (2016). Awareness and Control in Sociolinguistic Research, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, Beryl L. (1965). Toward a new perspective in Negro English dialectology. American Speech, 40(3), 171–77.Google Scholar
Bailey, Guy and Thomas, Erik. (1998). Some aspects of African American vernacular English phonology. In Mufwene, Salikoko, Rickford, John R., Bailey, Guy, and Baugh, John, eds., African American English: Structure, History, and Use, London and New York: Routledge, 85–109.Google Scholar
Bailey, Guy and Maynor, Natalie. (1987). Decreolization?. Language in Society, 16(4), 449–73.Google Scholar
Bailey, Guy, Maynor, Natalie, and Cukor-Avila, Patricia, eds. (1991). The Emergence of Black English: Texts and Commentary, Amsterdam: Benjamins.Google Scholar
Baldwin, James. (1979). If Black English isn’t a language, then tell me, what is? The New York Times, July 29, 1979. https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/98/03/29/specials/baldwin-english.html?mcubz=3Google Scholar
Baugh, John. (1980). A reexamination of the Black English copula. In Labov, William, ed., Locating Language in Time and Space, New York: Academic Press, 83–106.Google Scholar
Baugh, John. (1983). Black Street Speech: Its History, Structure, and Survival, Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Baugh, John. (1984). Steady: Progressive aspect in Black Vernacular English. American Speech, 59(1), 3–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baugh, John. (1996). Perceptions within a variable paradigm: Black and White racial detection and identification based on speech. In Schneider, Edgar W., ed., Focus on the USA, Amsterdam: Benjamins, 169–82.Google Scholar
Baugh, John. (2000a). Beyond Ebonics: Linguistic Pride and Racial Prejudice, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Baugh, John. (2000b). Racial identification by speech. American Speech, 75(4), 362–64.Google Scholar
Baugh, John. (2003). Linguistic profiling. In Makoni, Sinfree, Smitherman, Geneva, Ball, Arnetha F., and Spears, Arthur K., eds., Black Linguistics: Language, Society, and Politics in Africa and the Americas, New York: Routledge, 155–63.Google Scholar
Bell, Allan. (1984). Language style as audience design. Language in Society, 13(2), 145–204.Google Scholar
Bennett, John. (1908). Gullah: A Negro patois. South Atlantic Quarterly, 7, 332–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benor, Sarah Bunim. (2010). Ethnolinguistic repertoire: Shifting the analytic focus in language and ethnicity. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 14(2), 159–83.Google Scholar
Berdan, Robert. (1977). Polylectal comprehension and the polylectal grammar. In Fasold, Ralph and Shuy, Roger, eds., Studies in Language Variation: Semantics, Syntax, Phonology, Pragmatics, Social Situations, Ethnographic Approaches, Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 12–29.Google Scholar
Bereiter, Carl and Englemann, Siegfried. (1966). Teaching Disadvantaged Children in the Pre-School, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Bernstein, Cynthia. (1993). Measuring social causes of phonological variables in Texas. American Speech, 68(3), 227–40.Google Scholar
Bernstein, Cynthia. (2006). Drawing out the /ai/: Dialect boundaries and /ai/ variation. In Murray, Thomas E. and Simon, Beth Lee, eds., Language Variation and Change in the American Midland: A New Look at “Heartland” English, Philadelphia, PA: Benjamins, 209–32.Google Scholar
Bickerton, Derek. (1981). Roots of Language, Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma.Google Scholar
Blackshire-Belay, Carole. (1996). The location of Ebonics within the framework of the Africological Paradigm. Journal of Black Studies, 27, 5–23.Google Scholar
Blake, Renee. (1997). Defining the envelope of linguistic variation: The case of “don’t count” forms in the copula analysis of African American Vernacular English. Language Variation and Change, 9(1), 57–79.Google Scholar
Blake, Renee and Buchstaller, Isabelle, eds. (2019). The Routledge Companion to the Work of John R. Rickford, New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Blom, Jan-Petter and Gumperz, John J.. (1972). Social meaning in linguistic structures: Code-switching in Norway. In Gumperz, John J. and Hymes, Dell, eds., Directions in Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of Communication, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 407–34.Google Scholar
Bogle, Donald. (2001). Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies, and Bucks: An Interpretive History of Blacks in American Films, New York: Continuum.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, Pierre. (1986). The forms of capital. In Richardson, John, ed., Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, New York: Greenwood, 241–58.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, Pierre. (1991). Language and Symbolic Power, Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Bowser, Benjamin P. (2007). The Black Middle Class: Social Mobility and Vulnerability, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Britt, Erica. (2011a). “Can the church say amen”: Strategic uses of African American preaching style at the State of the Black Union. Language in Society, 40(2), 211–33.Google Scholar
Britt, Erica. (2011b). “Talking Black in public spaces: An investigation of the identity and the use of preaching style in Black public speech,” PhD Dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.Google Scholar
Britt, Erica and Weldon, Tracey. (2015). African American English in the middle class. In Lanehart, Sonja, ed., The Oxford Handbook of African American Language, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 800–16.Google Scholar
Brown, Claude. (1968). The language of soul. Esquire, April 1968, 88, 160–61.Google Scholar
Bucholtz, Mary. (2003). Sociolinguistic nostalgia and the authentication of identity. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 7(3), 398–416.Google Scholar
Bucholtz, Mary and Lopez, Quiana. (2011). Performing blackness, forming whiteness: Linguistic minstrelsy in Hollywood film. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 15(5), 680–706.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buck, Joyce. (1968). The effects of Negro and White dialectal variations upon attitudes of college students. Speech Monographs, 35(2), 181–86.Google Scholar
Butters, Ronald. (1989). The Death of Black English: Divergence and Convergence in Black and White Vernaculars, Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Canagarajah, A. Suresh. (2006). The place of world Englishes in composition: Pluralization continued. College Composition and Communication, 57(4), 586–619.Google Scholar
Choi, Julie. (2016). Creating a Multivocal Self: Autoethnography as Method, New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clifton, James. (1981). The rice driver: His role in slave management. South Carolina Historical Magazine, 82(4), 331–53.Google Scholar
Coates, Ta-Nehisi. (2004). Ebonics! Weird names! $500 shoes! Shrill Bill Cosby and the speech that shocked black America. Village Voice, May 26–June 1, 2004.Google Scholar
Collins, Chris, Moody, Simanique, and Postal, Paul. (2008). An AAE camouflage construction. Language, 84(1), 29–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cosby, Bill. (2004). Dr. Bill Cosby speaks: 50th anniversary commemoration of the Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education Supreme Court Decision. The Black Scholar, 34(4), 2–5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2004.11413278Google Scholar
Coupland, Nikolas. (1980). Style-shifting in a Cardiff work-setting. Language in Society, 9(1), 1–12.Google Scholar
Craig, Holly K. and Washington, Julie A.. (2006). Malik Goes to School: Examining the Language Skills of African American Students from Preschool–5th Grade. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.Google Scholar
Crenshaw, Kimberle. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1(8), 139–67.Google Scholar
Crum, Mason. (1940). Gullah: Negro Life in the Carolina Sea Islands, Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Cutler, Cecilia A. (1999). Yorkville Crossing: White teens, hip hop and African American English. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 3(4), 428–42.Google Scholar
D’Eloia, Sarah. (1973). Issues in the analysis of nonstandard Negro English: A review of J.L. Dillard’s Black English: Its History and Usage in the United States. Journal of English Linguistics, 7(1), 87–106.Google Scholar
Dalby, David. (1971). Communication in Africa and the New World. In Wolfram, Walt and Clark, Nona H., eds., Black-White Speech Relations, Arlington, VA: Center for Applied Linguistics, 99–138.Google Scholar
Daniels, John. (1914). In Freedom’s Birthplace: A Study of the Boston Negroes, New York: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Dayton, Elizabeth. (1996). “Grammatical categories of the verb in African-American Vernacular English,” PhD Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
Debose, Charles. (1992). Codeswitching: Black English and Standard English in the African-American linguistic repertoire. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 13(1), 157–67.Google Scholar
Debose, Charles and Faraclas, Nicholas. (1993). An Africanist approach to the linguistic study of Black English: Getting to the roots of the tense-modality-aspect and copula systems in Afro-American. In Mufwene, Salikoko and Condon, Nancy, eds., Africanisms in Afro-American Language Varieties. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 364–87.Google Scholar
Denning, Keith. (1989). Convergence with divergence: A sound change in Vernacular Black English. Language Variation and Change, 1(2), 145–67.Google Scholar
Dillard, Joe L. (1972). Black English: Its History and Usage in the United States, New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Dodsworth, Robin. (2009). Modeling socioeconomic class in variationist sociolinguistics. Language and Linguistics Compass, 3(5), 1314–27.Google Scholar
Doss, Richard C. and Gross, Alan M.. (1994). The effects of Black English and code-switching on intraracial perceptions. Journal of Black Psychology, 20(3), 282–93.Google Scholar
Drake, St. Clair and Cayton, Horace R.. (1945). Black Metropolis, New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company.Google Scholar
Du Bois, W. E. B. (1903). The Souls of Black Folk, New York: Bantam Classic.Google Scholar
Du Bois, W. E. B. (1967). The Philadelphia Negro, New York: Schocken Books.Google Scholar
Dunn, Ernest F. (1976). The Black-Southern white dialect controversy: Who did what to whom?. In Harrison, Deborah S. and Trabasso, Tom, eds., Black English: A Seminar, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 105–22.Google Scholar
Dyson, Michael Eric. (2005). Is Bill Cosby Right? Or Has the Black Middle Class Lost Its Mind?, New York: Basic Civitas Books.Google Scholar
Eckert, Penelope. (1989). Jocks and Burnouts: Social Identity in the High School, New York: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
Eckert, Penelope. (2001). Style and social meaning. In Eckert, Penelope and Rickford, John R., eds., Style and Sociolinguistic Variation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 119–26.Google Scholar
Eckert, Penelope. (2008). Variation and the indexical field. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 12(4), 453–76.Google Scholar
Eckert, Penelope. (2001). Style and social meaning. In Eckert, Penelope and Rickford, John R., eds., Style and Sociolinguistic Variation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 119–26.Google Scholar
Eckert, Penelope. (2012). Three waves of variation study: The emergence of meaning in the study of variation. Annual Review of Anthropology, 41(1), 87–100.Google Scholar
Eckert, Penelope and Rickford, John R.. (2001). Style and Sociolinguistic Variation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Edwards, Walter. (1992). Sociolinguistic behavior in a Detroit inner-city black neighborhood. Language in Society, 21(1), 93–115.Google Scholar
Ervin-Tripp, Susan. (2001). Variety, style-shifting, and ideology. In Eckert, Penelope and Rickford, John R., eds., Style and Sociolinguistic Variation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 44–56.Google Scholar
Fasold, Ralph. (1976). One hundred years from syntax to phonology. In Steever, Sanford, Walker, Carol, and Mufwene, Salikoko, eds., Papers from the Parasession on Diachronic Syntax, Chicago, IL: Chicago Linguistic Society, 79–87.Google Scholar
Fasold, Ralph. (1981). The relationship between Black and White speech in the South. American Speech, 56(3), 163–89.Google Scholar
Fasold, Ralph and Wolfram, Walt. (1970). Some linguistic features of Negro dialect. In Fasold, Ralph and Shuy, Roger, eds., Teaching Standard English in the Inner City, Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics, 41–86.Google Scholar
Fasold, Ralph W., Labov, William, Vaughn-Cooke, Fay Boy, Bailey, Guy, Wolfram, Walt, Spears, Arthur K., and Rickford, John R.. (1987). Are black and white vernaculars diverging? Papers from the NWAVE-XVI panel discussion. American Speech, 62(1), 3–80.Google Scholar
Feagin, Crawford. (1979). Variation and Change in Alabama English: A Sociolinguistic Study of the White Community, Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Fine, Marlene G. and Anderson, Carolyn. (1980). Dialectal features of black characters in situation comedies on television. Phylon, 41(4), 396–409.Google Scholar
Fix, Sonya. (2011). “Dark-skinned White girls: Linguistic and ideological variation among White women with African American ties in the urban Midwest,” PhD Dissertation, New York University.Google Scholar
Fordham, Signithia and Ogbu, John U.. (1986). Black students’ school success: Coping with the “burden of ‘Acting White’.” The Urban Review, 18(3), 176–206.Google Scholar
Foreman, Christina. (2000). Identification of African American English from prosodic cues. Texas Linguistic Forum, 43, 57–66.Google Scholar
Fought, Carmen. (2006). Language and Ethnicity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fought, Carmen and Harper, Lea. (2004). “African Americans and language in the media: An overview.” Paper Presented at New Ways of Analyzing Variation (NWAV) 33 conference, Ann Arbor, MI.Google Scholar
Frazier, E. Franklin. (1957). African American Bourgeoisie: The Rise of the New Middle Class in the United States, London: Collier Books.Google Scholar
Garner, Thurmon and Rubin, Donald L.. (1986). Middle class African Americans’ perceptions of dialect and style shifting: The case of Southern attorneys. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 5(1), 33–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giles, Howard, ed. (1984). The Dynamics of Speech Accommodation, Amsterdam: Mouton.Google Scholar
Giles, Howard, Coupland, Justine, and Coupland, Nikolas. (1991). Contexts of Accommodation: Developments in Applied Sociolinguistics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gilyard, Keith. (1991). Voices of the Self: A Study of Language Competence, Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press.Google Scholar
Gonzales, Ambrose. (1922). The Black Border: Gullah Stories of the Carolina Coast, Columbia, SC: The State Company.Google Scholar
Goodman, Leo A. (1961). Snowball sampling. Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 32(1), 148–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, Matthew J. (2000). Phonological correlates of ethnic identity: Evidence of divergence?. American Speech, 75(2), 115–36.Google Scholar
Graham, Lawrence Otis. (1999). Our Kind of People: Inside America’s Black Upper Class, New York: Harper Collins.Google Scholar
Green, Lisa. (2002). African American English: A Linguistic Introduction, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greene, Rebecca. (2010). “Language, ideology, and identity in rural Eastern Kentucky,” PhD Dissertation, Stanford University.Google Scholar
Grieser, Jessica. (2014). “The language of professional blackness: African American English at the intersection of race, place, and class in Southeast, Washington, D.C.,” PhD Dissertation, Georgetown University.Google Scholar
Gumperz, John J. (1964). Linguistic and social interaction in two communities. American Anthropologist, 66(6), 137–54.Google Scholar
Hannah, Dawn. (1997). Copula absence in Samaná English: Implications for research on the linguistic history of African-American Vernacular English. American Speech, 72(4), 339–72.Google Scholar
Hannah-Jones, Nikole. (2014). School segregation, the continuing tragedy of Ferguson. ProPublica, December 18, 2014. www.propublica.org/article/ferguson-school-segregationGoogle Scholar
Harper, Lea. (2006). “The representation of African American Vernacular English in the media,” MA Thesis, University of California, Santa Barbara.Google Scholar
Harper, Lea. (2008). Style shifting by African American actors in Hollywood films. Unpublished manuscript. University of California, Santa Barbara.Google Scholar
Hay, Jennifer, Jannedy, Stefanie, and Mendoza-Denton, Norma. (1999). Oprah and /ay/: Lexical frequency, referee design and style. In Proceedings of the 14th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, San Francisco, CA, CD-ROM.Google Scholar
Hazen, Kirk and Fluharty, Ellen. (2004). Defining Appalachian English. In Bender, Margaret, ed., Linguistic Diversity in the South: Changing Codes, Practices, and Ideology, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 50–65.Google Scholar
Herskovits, Melville J. ([1941] 1970). The Myth of the Negro Past, Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith.Google Scholar
Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks. (1993). Righteous Discontent: The Women’s Movement in the Black Baptist Church 1880–1920, Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Hochschild, Jennifer. (1998). American racial and ethnic politics in the 21st century: A cautious look ahead. The Brookings Institute, 16(2), 43–46. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2004.11413278Google Scholar
Holliday, Nicole R. (2016). “Intonational variation, linguistic style and the Black/biracial experience,” PhD Dissertation, New York University.Google Scholar
Holm, John. ([1976] 1984). Variability of the copula in Black English and its Creole kin. American Speech, 59(4), 291–309.Google Scholar
Hoover, Mary Rhodes. (1975). “Appropriate use of Black English by Black children as rated by their parents,” PhD Dissertation, Stanford University.Google Scholar
Hoover, Mary Rhodes. (1978). Community attitudes toward Black English. Language in Society, 7(1), 65–87.Google Scholar
Houston, Shannon. M. (2015). Respectability will not save us: Black Lives Matter is right to reject the “dignity and decorum” mandate handed down to us from slavery. Salon.com, August 25, 2015. www.salon.com/2015/08/25/respectability_will_not_save_us_black_lives_matter_is_right_to_reject_the_dignity_and_decorum_mandate_handed_down_to_us_from_slavery/Google Scholar
Hunter, Margaret. (2007). The persistent problem of colorism: Skin tone, status, and inequality. Sociology Compass, 2(1), 237–54. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00078.xGoogle Scholar
Hymes, Dell. (1967). Models of the interaction of language and social setting. Journal of Social Issues, 23(2), 8–28.Google Scholar
Irons, Terry. (2007). On the southern shift in Appalachia. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 13(2), 121–34.Google Scholar
Irvine, Judith T. (2001). “Style” as distinctiveness: The culture and ideology of linguistic differentiation. In Eckert, Penelope and Rickford, John, eds., Style and Sociolinguistic Variation, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jacobs-Huey, Lanita. (2006). From the Kitchen to the Parlor: Language and Becoming in African American Women’s Hair Care, New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Jensen, Arthur. (1969). How much can we boost IQ?. Harvard Educational Review, 39(1), 1–123.Google Scholar
Johnstone, Barbara. (1996). The Linguistic Individual: Self-Expression in Language and Linguistics, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Jones, Jamila and Preston, Dennis R.. (2011). AAE & identity: Constructing & deploying linguistic resources. In Dwyer, David, ed., The Joy of Language: Proceedings of a Symposium Honoring the Colleagues of David Dwyer on the Occasion of his Retirement. www.msu.edu/%7Edwyer/JOLIndex.htmGoogle Scholar
Kautzsch, Alexander and Schneider, Edgar W.. (2000). Differential creolization: Some evidence from Earlier African American Vernacular English in South Carolina. In Neumann-Holzschuh, Ingrid and Schneider, Edgar W., eds., Degrees of Restructuring in Creole Languages, Amsterdam: Benjamins, 247–74.Google Scholar
Kearse, Randy. (2006). Street Talk: Da Official Guide to Hip-Hop and Urban Slanguage. Fort Lee, NJ: Barricade Books.Google Scholar
Kendall, Diana. (2005). Framing Class: Media Representations of Wealth and Poverty in America, Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Kendall, Tyler and Wolfram, Walt. (2009). Local and external language standards in African American English. Journal of English Linguistics, 37(4), 5–30.Google Scholar
Knowles-Borishade, Adetokunbo F. (1991). Paradigm for classical African orature: Instrument for scientific revolution?. The Journal of Black Studies, 21(4), 488–500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koch, Lisa, Gross, Alan, and Kolts, Russell. (2001). Attitudes toward African American English code switching. Journal of African American Psychology, 27(1), 29–42.Google Scholar
Kochhar, Rakesh and Fry, Richard. (2014). “Wealth inequality has widened along racial, ethnic lines since end of Great Recession,” Pew Research Center, December 12, 2014. www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/12/12/racial-wealth-gaps-great-recession/Google Scholar
Kochman, Thomas. (1981). Black and White Styles in Conflict, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Kohn, Mary. (2015). (De)Segregation: The impact of de-facto and de-jure segregation on African American English in the New South. LAVIS IV: Language Variation in the South, Raleigh, NC. April.Google Scholar
Kolker, Andrew, Alvarez, Louis, Wilson, Trey, Milano, Susan, and Myers, Lora. (1987). “American Tongues.” New York: Center for New American Media. CNAM Film Library.Google Scholar
Krapp, George Philip. (1924). The English of the Negro. American Mercury, 2, 190–95.Google Scholar
Krause, Eleanor and Sawhill, Isabel V.. (2018). Seven reasons to worry about the American Middle Class. Brookings Institute: Social Mobility Memos, June 5, 2018. www.brookings.edu/blog/social-mobility-memos/2018/06/05/seven-reasons-to-worry-about-the-american-middle-class/.Google Scholar
Kurath, Hans. (1928). The origin of dialectal differences in spoken American English. Modern Philology, 25(4), 285–95.Google Scholar
Kurath, Hans. (1949). A Word Geography of the Eastern United States, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Kurath, Hans and McDavid, Raven Jr. (1961). The Pronunciation of English in the Atlantic States, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Labov, William. (1966). The Social Stratification of English in New York City, Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.Google Scholar
Labov, William. (1969). Contraction, deletion, and inherent variability of the English copula. Language, 45(4), 715–62.Google Scholar
Labov, William. (1972a). Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular, Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Labov, William. (1972b). Some principles of linguistic methodology. Language in Society, 1(1), 97–120.Google Scholar
Labov, William. (1972c). Sociolinguistic Patterns, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Labov, William. (1982). Objectivity and commitment in linguistic science: The case of the Black English trial in Ann Arbor. Language in Society, 11(2), 165–201.Google Scholar
Labov, William. (1998). Coexistent systems in African-American Vernacular English. In Mufwene, Salikoko, Rickford, John R., Bailey, Guy, and Baugh, John, eds., African American English: Structure, History, and Use, London and New York: Routledge, 110–53.Google Scholar
Labov, William. (2010). Unendangered dialect, endangered people: The case of African American Vernacular English. Transforming Anthropology, 18(1), 15–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Labov, William, Yaeger, Malcah, and Steiner, Richard. (1972). A Quantitative Study of Sound Change in Progress, Philadelphia, PA: US Regional Survey.Google Scholar
Labov, William, Cohen, Paul, and Robbins, Clarence. (1965). A Preliminary Study of the Structure of English Used by Negro and Puerto Rican Speakers in New York City. Co-operative Research Project No. 3091. Washington, DC: Educational Resources Information Center.Google Scholar
Labov, William, Cohen, Paul, Robbins, Clarence, and Lewis, John. (1968). A Study of the Non-standard English of Negro and Puerto-Rican Speakers in New York City. Final Report, Cooperative Research Project 3228. Vols. I and II. Philadelphia, PA: US Regional Survey.Google Scholar
Labov, William, Ash, Sharon, and Boberg, Charles. (2006). The Atlas of North American English: Phonetics, Phonology and Sound Change – A Multimedia Reference Tool, Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Labov, William, Ash, Sharon, Ravindranath, Maya, Weldon, Tracey, Baranowski, Maciej, and Nagy, Naomi. (2011). Properties of the sociolinguistic monitor. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 15(4), 431–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Labov, William and Harris, Wendell A.. (1986). De facto segregation of Black and White vernaculars. In Sankoff, David, ed., Diversity and Diachrony, Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1–24.Google Scholar
Lacy, Karyn R. (2007). Blue-Chip Black: Race, Class, and Status in the New Black Middle Class, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Lambert, Wallace E., Hodgson, Richard C., Gardner, Robert C., and Fillenbaum, Stanley. (1960). Evaluational reactions to spoken languages. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 60(1), 44–51.Google Scholar
Landry, Bart. (1987). The New Black Middle Class, Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Lanehart, Sonja, ed. (2015). The Oxford Handbook of African American Language, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lanehart, Sonja and Malik, Ayehsa. (2015). Language use in African American communities: An introduction. In Lanehart, Sonja, ed., The Oxford Handbook of African American Language, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1–19.Google Scholar
Lass, Norman J., Tecca, John E., Mancuso, Robert A., and Black, Wanda I.. (1979). The effect of phonetic complexity on speaker race and sex identifications. Journal of Phonetics, 7(2), 105–18.Google Scholar
LeClair, Thomas. (1981). The language must not sweat: A conversation with Toni Morrison. New Republic, March 21, 1981. https://newrepublic.com/article/95923/the-language-must-not-sweatGoogle Scholar
LePage, Robert. (1960). An historical introduction to Jamaican Creole. In LePage, Robert B. and DeCamp, David, eds., Jamaican Creole: Creole Language Studies 1, London: Macmillan, 1–124.Google Scholar
LePage, Robert. (1977). Processes of Pidginization and Creolization: Pidgin and Creole Linguistics, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
LePage, Robert B., and Tabouret-Keller, Andrée. (1985). Acts of Identity: Creole-Based Approaches to Language and Ethnicity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lewis, Catherine M. and Lewis, J. Richard. (2009). Jim Crow America: A Documentary History, Fayetteville: The University of Arkansas Press.Google Scholar
Linnes, Kathleen. (1998). Middle-class AAVE versus middle-class bilingualism: Contrasting speech communities. American Speech, 73(4), 339–67.Google Scholar
Lippi-Green, Rosina. (1997). English with an Accent: Language, Ideology, and Discrimination in the United States, New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Lippi-Green, Rosina. (2012). English with an Accent: Language, Ideology, and Discrimination in the United States, 2nd edn, New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Lopez, Qiuana. (2009). Imitation or influence: White actors and Black language in film. Texas Linguistic Forum 53: Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Symposium About Language and Society. Austin, Texas, 110–20.Google Scholar
Lopez, Qiuana. (2014). Aggressively feminine: The linguistic appropriation of sexualized blackness by white female characters in film. Gender and Language, 8(3), 289–310.Google Scholar
Lowrey, Annie. (2017). The Great Recession is still with us. The Atlantic, December 1, 2017. www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2017/12/great-recession-still-with-us/547268/Google Scholar
Mahar, William J. (1999). Behind the Burnt Cork Mask: Blackface Minstrelsy and Antebellum American Popular Culture, Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Major, Clarence. (1994). Juba to Jive: A Dictionary of African American Slang, New York: Penguin.Google Scholar
Mallinson, Christine. (2007). Social class, social status and stratification: Revisiting familiar concepts in sociolinguistics. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 13(2), 149–63.Google Scholar
Martin, Stefan and Wolfram, Walt. (1998). The sentence in African American Vernacular English. In Mufwene, Salikoko, Rickford, John R., Bailey, Guy, and Baugh, John, eds., African American English: Structure, History, and Use, London and New York: Routledge, 11–36.Google Scholar
Milroy, James and Milroy, Leslie. (1991). Authority in Language: Investigating Language Prescription and Standardization, London and New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Milroy, Leslie. (1980). Language and Social Networks, Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Mishel, Lawrence, Bivens, Josh, Gould, Elise, and Shierholz, Heidi. (2012). The State of Working America: Wealth, 12th edn, Economic Policy Institute Digital Edition.Google Scholar
Mitchell-Kernan, Claudia. (1971). Language Behavior in a Black Urban Community, Berkeley, CA: Language Behavior Research Laboratory.Google Scholar
Moody, Simanique. (2011). “Language contact and regional variation in African American English: A study of southeast Georgia,” PhD Dissertation, New York University.Google Scholar
Morgan, Marcyliena (1994). The African American speech community: Reality and sociolinguistics. In Morgan, Marcyliena, ed., Language and the Social Construction of Identity in Creole Situations, Los Angeles, CA: Center for African American Studies, 121–48.Google Scholar
Morgan, Marcyliena (2002). Language, Discourse, and Power in African American Culture (Studies in the Social and Cultural Foundations of Language), Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Morse, J. Mitchell. (1973). The shuffling speech of slavery: Black English. College English, 34(6), 834–43.Google Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko. (1992). Ideology and facts on African American English. Pragmatics, 2(2), 141–68.Google Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko. (1997). Gullah’s development: Myths and sociohistorical evidence. In Bernstein, Cynthia, Nunnally, Thomas, and Sabino, Robin, eds., Language Variety in the South Revisited, Tuscaloosa and London: University of Alabama Press, 113–23.Google Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko. (1998). The structure of the noun phrase in African American Vernacular English. In Mufwene, Salikoko, Rickford, John R., Bailey, Guy, and Baugh, John, eds., African American English: Structure, History, and Use, London and New York: Routledge, 69–81.Google Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko. (2001). What is African American English? In Lanehart, Sonja, ed., Sociocultural and Historical Contexts of African American English, Amsterdam: Benjamins, 21–51.Google Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko, Rickford, John R., Bailey, Guy, and Baugh, John, eds. (1998). African American English: Structure, History, and Use, London and New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Myers-Scotton, Carol. (1998). A theoretical introduction to the markedness model. In Myers-Scotton, Carol, ed., Codes and Consequences: Choosing Linguistic Varieties, New York: Oxford University Press, 18–38.Google Scholar
Myhill, John. (1995). The use of features of present-day AAVE in the ex-slave recordings. American Speech, 70(2), 115–47.Google Scholar
Newton, James E. (1977). Slave artisans and craftsmen: The roots of Afro-American art. The Black Scholar, 9(3), 35–42.Google Scholar
Nguyen, Jennifer. (2006). “The changing social and linguistic orientation of the African American middle class,” PhD Dissertation, University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Nichols, Patricia. (1983). Linguistics options and choices for Black women in the Rural South. In Thorne, Barrie, Kramrae, Cheris, and Henley, Nancy, eds., Language, Gender, and Society, New York: Newbury House, 54–68.Google Scholar
Nicolis, Marco. (2008). The null subject parameter and correlating properties: The case of Creole languages. In Biberauer, Theresa, ed., The Limits of Syntactic Variation, Amsterdam: Benjamins, 271–94.Google Scholar
Norwood, Kimberly J., ed. (2014). Color Matters: Skin Tone Bias and the Myth of a Postracial America, New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Pattillo-McCoy, Mary. (1999). African American Picket Fences: Privilege and Peril among the African American Middle Class, Chicago: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Pederson, Lee. (1983). East Tennessee Folk Speech. Frankfurt am Main and New York: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Poplack, Shana, ed. (2000). The English History of African American English, Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Poplack, Shana and Sankoff, David. (1987). The Philadelphia story in the Spanish Caribbean. American Speech, 62(4), 291–314.Google Scholar
Poplack, Shana and Tagliamonte, Sali. (1991). African American English in the diaspora: Evidence from old-line Nova Scotians. Language Variation and Change, 3(3), 301–39.Google Scholar
Praat: Doing phonetics by computer. Version 5.3.80. Developed by Paul Boersma and David Weenink.Google Scholar
Preston, Dennis R. (1992). Talking Black and talking White: A study in variety imitation. In Hall, Joan H., Doane, Nick, and Ringler, Dick, eds., Old English and New: Papers in Honor of Frederic G. Cassidy on the Occasion of His 85th Birthday, New York: Garland, 327–55.Google Scholar
Preston, Dennis R. (1996). Where the worst English is spoken. In Schneider, Edgar, ed., Focus on the USA, Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 297–360.Google Scholar
Preston, Dennis R. (2004). Language attitudes to speech. In Finegan, Edward and Rickford, John R., eds., Language in the USA, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 480–92.Google Scholar
Pullum, Geoffrey. (1999). African American Vernacular English is not Standard English with mistakes. In Wheeler, Rebecca, ed., The Workings of Language: From Prescriptions to Perspectives, Westport, CT: Praeger, 39–58.Google Scholar
Purnell, Thomas, Idsardi, William, and Baugh, John. (1999). Perceptual and phonetic experiments on American English dialect identification. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 18(1), 10–30.Google Scholar
Rahman, Jacqueline. (2004). “It’s a serious business: The linguistic construction of middle-class White characters by African American narrative comedians,” PhD Dissertation, Stanford University.Google Scholar
Rahman, Jacqueline. (2007). An ay for an ah: Language of survival in African American narrative comedy. American Speech, 82(1), 65–96.Google Scholar
Rahman, Jacqueline. (2008). Middle-class African Americans: Reactions and attitudes toward African American English. American Speech, 83(2), 141–76.Google Scholar
Ransby, Barbara. (2015). The class politics of Black Lives Matter. Dissent. University of Pennsylvania Press, 62(4), 31–34. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/dss.2015.0071Google Scholar
Reaser, Jeffrey, Wilbanks, Eric, Wojcik, Karissa, and Wolfram, Walt, eds. (2018). Language Variety in the New South: Contemporary Perspectives on Change and Variation, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 175–202.Google Scholar
Reed, Paul. (2016). “Sounding Appalachian: Monophthongization, rising pitch accents, and rootedness,” PhD Dissertation, The University of South Carolina.Google Scholar
Reeves, Richard and Busette, Camille. (2018). The middle class is becoming race-plural, just like the rest of America. Brookings Institute: Social Mobility Memos, February 27, 2018. www.brookings.edu/blog/social-mobility-memos/2018/02/27/the-middle-class-is-becoming-race-plural-just-like-the-rest-of-america/Google Scholar
Renn, Jennifer. (2007). “Measuring style shift: A quantitative analysis of African American English,” MA Thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Renn, Jennifer. (2010). “Acquiring style: The development of dialect shifting among African American children,” PhD Dissertation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Reynolds, Barbara. (2015). I was a civil rights activist in the 1960s. But it’s hard for me to get behind Black Lives Matter. The Washington Post, August 24, 2015. www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2015/08/24/i-was-a-civil-rights-activist-in-the-1960s-but-its-hard-for-me-to-get-behind-black-lives-matter/?postshare=5221440433170944&utm_term=.591bd8830a67/Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. (1975 [1999]). Carrying the new wave into syntax: The case of Black English BÍN. In Fasold, Ralph and Shuy, Roger, eds., Analyzing Variation and Language, Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 162–83. Reprinted in African American Vernacular English: Features, Evolution, Educational Implication, Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell, 15–33.Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. (1977). The Question of Prior Creolization in Black English. In Valdman, Albert, ed., Pidgin-Creole Linguistics, Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 199–221.Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. (1986). The need for new approaches to social class analysis in sociolinguistics. Language and Communication, 6(3), 215–21.Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. (1987 [1999]). Are Black and White vernaculars diverging? American Speech, 62(1), 55–62. Reprinted in African American Vernacular English: Features, Evolution, Educational Implications, Malden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell, 252–60.Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. (1992). Grammatical variation and divergence in Vernacular Black English. In Gerritsen, Marinel and Stein, Dieter, eds., Internal and External Factors in Syntactic Change, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 175–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rickford, John R. (1996). Copula variability in Jamaican Creole and African American Vernacular English: A reanalysis of DeCamp’s texts. In Guy, Gregory, Baugh, John, Schiffrin, Deborah, and Feagin, Crawford, eds., Towards a Social Science of Language: A Festschrift for William Labov, Philadelphia, PA and Amsterdam: Benjamins, 357–72.Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. (1998). The Creole origins of African American Vernacular English: Evidence from copula absence. In African American English: Structure, History, and Use, London and New York: Routledge, 154–200.Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. (1999a). African American Vernacular English: Features, Evolution, Educational Implications, Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. (1999b). Phonological and grammatical features of African American Vernacular English. In Rickford, John R., African American Vernacular English: Features, Evolution, Educational Implications, Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell, 3–14.Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. (1999c). Prior creolization of African American Vernacular English? Sociohistorical and textual evidence from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In Rickford, John R., African American Vernacular English: Features, Evolution, Educational Implications, Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell, 232–51.Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. (2001). Style and stylizing from the perspective of a non-autonomous sociolinguistics. In Eckert, Penelope and Rickford, John R., eds., Style and Sociolinguistic Variation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 220–31.Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. (2006). Down for the count? The Creole Origins Hypothesis of AAVE at the hands of the Ottawa Circle, and their supporters. A review article on The English History of African American English. Shana Poplack, ed. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, 21(1), 98–155.Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. (2010). Geographical diversity, residential segregation, and the vitality of African American Vernacular English and its speakers. Transforming Anthropology, 18(1), 28–34.Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. (2019). The continuing need for new approaches to social class analysis in sociolinguistics. In Rickford, John R., Variation and Versatility in Sociolinguistics and Creole Studies, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 301–27.Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. and Rickford, Angela. (1976 [1999]). Cut-eye and suck-teeth: African words and gestures in New World guise. Journal of American Folklore, 89(353), 294–309. Reprinted in African American Vernacular English: Features, Evolution, Educational Implications, Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell, 157–73.Google Scholar
Rickford, John R., Ball, Arnetha, Blake, Renee, Jackson, Raina, and Martin, Nomi. (1991). Rappin on the copula coffin: Theoretical and methodological issues in the analysis of copula variation in African American Vernacular English. Language Variation and Change, 3(1), 103–32.Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. and McNair-Knox, Faye. (1994). Addressee- and topic-influenced style shift: A quantitative sociolinguistic study. In Biber, Douglas and Finegan, Edward, eds., Perspectives on Register: Situating Register Variation within Sociolinguistics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 235–76.Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. and Price, Mackenzie. (2013). Girlz II women: Age-grading, language change and stylistic variation. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 17, 143–79. DOI: 10.1111/josl.12017Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. and Blake, Renee. (1990). Copula contraction and absence in Barbadian English, Samaná English and Vernacular Black English. In Hall, Kira, Koenig, Jean-Pierre, Meacham, Michael, Reinman, Sondra, and Sutton, Laurel, eds., BLS 16: Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, Berkeley, CA: Berkeley Linguistics Society, 257–68.Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. and Rickford, Russell J.. (2000). Spoken Soul: The Story of Black English, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. and King, Sharese. (2016). Language and linguistics on trial: Hearing Rachel Jeantel (and other vernacular speakers) in the courtroom and beyond. Language, 92(4), 948–88.Google Scholar
Robinson, Cedric J. (2005). The Black middle class and the Mulatto motion picture. Race & Class, 47(1), 14–34.Google Scholar
Robinson, Eugene. (2010). Disintegration: The Splintering of Black America, New York: Doubleday.Google Scholar
Ronkin, Maggie and Karn, Helen E.. (1999). Mock Ebonics: Linguistic racism in parodies of Ebonics on the internet. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 3(3), 360–80.Google Scholar
Rosiek, Jerry and Kinslow, Kathy. (2016). Resegregation as Curriculum: The Meaning of the New Racial Segregation in U.S. Public Schools, New York and London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Russell, Kathy, Wilson, Midge, and Hall, Ronald. (1993). The Color Complex: The Politics of Skin Color among African Americans, New York: Anchor Books/Doubleday.Google Scholar
Sankoff, David and Laberge, Suzanne. (1978). The linguistic market and the statistical explanation of variability. In Sankoff, David, ed., Linguistic Variation: Models and Methods, New York: Academic Press, 239–50.Google Scholar
Scanlon, Michael and Wassink, Alicia Beckford. (2010). African American English in urban Seattle: Accommodation and intraspeaker variation in the Pacific Northwest. American Speech, 85(2), 205–24.Google Scholar
Schilling-Estes, Natalie. (1998). Investigating “self-conscious” speech: The performance register in Ocracoke English. Language in Society, 27(1), 53–83.Google Scholar
Schneider, Edgar W. (1989). American Earlier Black English: Morphological and Syntactic Variables, Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.Google Scholar
Schneider, Edgar W., ed. (1996). Focus on the USA, Philadelphia and Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Sells, Peter, Rickford, John, and Wasow, Thomas. (1996). Negative inversion in African American Vernacular English. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory, 14(3), 591–627.Google Scholar
Sharma, Devyani. (2018). Style dominance: Attention, audience, and the “real me.” Language in Society, 47(1), 1–31.Google Scholar
Silverstein, Michael. (2003). Indexical order and the dialectics of sociolinguistic life. Language & Communication, 23(3–4), 193–229.Google Scholar
Simpkins, Gary C., Holt, Grace, and Simpkins, Charlesetta (1977). Bridge: A Cross-Cultural Reading Program, Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Singler, John Victor. (1991). Copula variation in Liberian Settler English and American Black English. In Edwards, Walter and Winford, Donald, eds., Verb Phrase Patterns in Black English and Creole, Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 129–64.Google Scholar
Singler, John Victor. (1998). What's not new in AAVE. American Speech, 73(3), 227–56.Google Scholar
Smitherman, Geneva. (1977). Talkin and Testifyin: The Language of Black America, Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Smitherman, Geneva. (1994). Black Talk: Words and Phrases from the Hood to the Amen Corner, Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Smitherman, Geneva. (1998). Word from the hood: The lexicon of African-American Vernacular English. In Mufwene, Salikoko, Rickford, John R., Bailey, Guy, and Baugh, John, eds., African American English: Structure, History, and Use, New York and London: Routledge, 203–25.Google Scholar
Smitherman, Geneva. (2000). Black Talk: Words and Phrases from the Hood to the Amen Corner, revised edn, Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Smitherman, Geneva. (2006). Word from the Mother: Language and African Americans, New York and London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Spears, Arthur K. (1982). The Black English semi-auxiliary “come.” Language, 58(4), 850–72.Google Scholar
Spears, Arthur K. (1988). Black American English. In Cole, Johnetta B., ed., Anthropology for the Nineties, New York: The Free Press, 96–113.Google Scholar
Spears, Arthur K. (1998). African-American Language use: Ideology and so-called obscenity. In Mufwene, Salikoko, Rickford, John R., Bailey, Guy, and Baugh, John, eds., African-American English: Structure, History, and Use, London and New York: Routledge, 226–50.Google Scholar
Spears, Arthur K. (2000). Stressed stay: A new African-American English aspect marker. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Dialect Society, Chicago, IL.Google Scholar
Spears, Arthur K. (2004). The question of tone in African American English. Paper presented at the joint conference of the Society for Caribbean Linguistics, Society for Pidgin and Creole Linguistics, and Asociasión de Criollos de Base Lexical Portuguesa e Española, Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles, August 10–16.Google Scholar
Spears, Arthur K. (2006). Disapproval markers – A creolism: Re-examining the African American English/Creole relationship. Papers from the Society for Caribbean Linguistics, Sixteenth Biennial Conference, Roseau, Dominica [on CD, 27 pp.].Google Scholar
Spears, Arthur K. (2008). Pidgins/creoles and African American English. In Kouwenberg, Silvia and Singler, John Victor, eds., The Handbook of Pidgin and Creole Studies, Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell, 512–42.Google Scholar
Spears, Arthur K. (2009). On shallow grammar: African American English and the critique of exceptionalism. In Kleifgen, Jo Anne and Bond, George C., eds., The Languages of Africa and the Diaspora: Educating for Language Awareness, Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 231–48.Google Scholar
Spears, Arthur K. (2015). African American Standard English. In Lanehart, Sonja, ed., The Oxford Handbook of African American Language, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 786–99.Google Scholar
Spears, Arthur K. (2017). Unstressed BEEN: Past and present in African American English. American Speech, 92(2), 151–75.Google Scholar
Squires, Lauren. (2016). Processing grammatical differences: Perceiving versus noticing. In Babel, Anna M., ed., Awareness and Control in Sociolinguistic Research, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 80–103.Google Scholar
Stanback, Marsha Houston. (1984). “Code-switching in Black women’s speech,” MA Thesis, University of Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Stancil, Will. (2018). School segregation is not a myth. The Atlantic, March 14, 2018. www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2018/03/school-segregation-is-not-a-myth/555614/Google Scholar
Stevens, William K. (1985). Study finds Blacks’ English increasingly different. The New York Times, March 15, 1985. www.nytimes.com/1985/03/15/us/study-finds-blacks-english-increasingly-different.htmlGoogle Scholar
Stewart, William. (1967). Sociolinguistic factors in the history of American Negro dialects. The Florida FL Reporter, 5(2), 11, 22, 24, 26, 28.Google Scholar
Stewart, William. (1968). Continuity and change in American Negro dialects. The Florida FL Reporter, 6(1), 3–4, 14–16, 18.Google Scholar
Stewart, William. (1975). Teaching Blacks to read against their will. In Luelsdorff, Philip, ed., Linguistic Perspectives on Black English, Regensburg: Verlag Hans Carl, 107–32.Google Scholar
Tarone, Elaine. (1973). Aspects of intonation in Black English. American Speech, 48(1/2), 29–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tatum, Beverly Daniel. (2017). Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria?: And Other Conversations about Race, New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Taylor, Orlando. (1975). Black language and what to do about it: Some Black community perspectives. In Williams, Robert L., ed., Ebonics: The True Language of Black Folks, St. Louis, MO: Institute of Black Studies, 29–39.Google Scholar
Taylor, Orlando. (1983). Black English: An agenda for the 1980’s. In Chambers, John Jr., ed., Black English: Educational Equity and the Law, Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma, 133–43.Google Scholar
Thomas, Erik R. (2001). An Acoustic Analysis of Vowel Variation in New World English (Publication of the American Dialect Society 85), Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Thomas, Erik R. (2007). Phonological and phonetic characteristics of African American Vernacular English. Language and Linguistics Compass, 1(5), 450–75.Google Scholar
Thomas, Erik R. (2015). Prosodic features of African American English. In Lanehart, Sonja, ed., The Oxford Handbook of African American Language, Oxford and Malden, MA: Oxford University Press, 420–35.Google Scholar
Thomas, Erik R. and Reaser, Jeffrey. (2004). Delimiting perceptual cues used for the ethnic labeling of African American and European American voices. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 8(1), 54–87.Google Scholar
Thomas, Erik R. and Carter, Phillip M.. (2006). Prosodic rhythm and African American English. English World-Wide, 27(3), 331–55.Google Scholar
Toll, Robert C. (1974). Blacking Up: The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth-Century America, New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Trudgill, Peter. (1972). Sex, covert prestige and linguistic change in the urban British English of Norwich. Language in Society, 1(2), 179–95.Google Scholar
Trudgill, Peter. (1983). On Dialect, Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Trudgill, Peter. (1986). Dialects in Contact, Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Tucker, Richard G. and Lambert, Wallace E.. (1975). Listeners’ reactions to various American-English dialects. In Dillard, Joey, ed., Perspectives on Black English, The Hague and the Netherlands: Mouton, 369–77.Google Scholar
Turner, Lorenzo Dow. (1949). Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect, New York: Arno Press.Google Scholar
Vanhofwegen, Janneke and Wolfram, Walt. (2010). Coming of age in African American English: A longitudinal study. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 14(4), 427–55.Google Scholar
Van Sertima, Ivan. (1976). My Gullah brother and I: Exploration into a community’s language and myth through its oral tradition. In Harrison, Deborah S. and Trabasso, Tom, eds., Black English: A Seminar, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 123–46.Google Scholar
Vaughn-Cooke, Fay Boyd. (1986). Lexical diffusion: Evidence from a decreolizing variety of Black English. In Montgomery, Michael B. and Bailey, Guy, eds., Language Variety in the South: Perspectives in Black and White, Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 111–30.Google Scholar
Veblen, Thorstein. (1899 [1994]). Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study in the Evolution of Institutions, New York: MacMillan. Reprinted in 1994 Dover Paperback Edition, ISBN 0-486-28062-4, 1994 Penguin Classics Edition, ISBN 0-14-018795-2.Google Scholar
Walker, James. (2000). Rephrasing the copula: Contraction and zero in early African American English. In Poplack, Shana, ed., The English History of African American English, Malden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell, 35–72.Google Scholar
Walker, Sheila. (1971). Black English: Expression of the Afro-American experience. Black World, 20(8), 4–16.Google Scholar
Warner, W. Lloyd and Lunt, Paul S.. (1941). The Social Life of a Modern Community, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Weber, Max. ( [1920] 1968). Economy and Society, Roth, Guenther and Wittich, Claus, eds. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Weinreich, Uriel. (1953). Languages in Contact, The Hague: Mouton.Google Scholar
Weldon, Tracey. (1994). Variability in negation in African-American Vernacular English. Language Variation and Change, 6(3), 359–97.Google Scholar
Weldon, Tracey. (1998). “Exploring the AAVE-Gullah connection: A comparative study of copula variability,” PhD Dissertation, The Ohio State University.Google Scholar
Weldon, Tracey. (2003a). Copula variability in Gullah. Language Variation and Change, 15(1), 37–72.Google Scholar
Weldon, Tracey. (2003b). Revisiting the Creolist Hypothesis: Copula variability in Gullah and southern rural AAVE. American Speech, 78(2), 171–91.Google Scholar
Weldon, Tracey. (2004). African American English in the middle classes: Exploring the other end of the continuum. Paper presented at New Ways of Analyzing Variation (NWAV) 33 Conference, Ann Arbor, MI.Google Scholar
Weldon, Tracey. (2018). Sounding Black: Labeling and perceptions of African American voices on Southern college campuses. In Reaser, Jeffrey, Wilbanks, Eric, Wojcik, Karissa, and Wolfram, Walt, eds., Language Variety in the New South: Contemporary Perspectives on Change and Variation, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 175–202.Google Scholar
Weldon, Tracey and Moody, Simanique. (2015). The place of Gullah in the African American linguistic continuum. In Lanehart, Sonja, ed., The Oxford Handbook of African American Language, Oxford and New York: Oxford, 163–80.Google Scholar
Whinnom, Keith. (1971). Linguistic hybridization and the “special case” of pidgins and creoles. In Hymes, Dell, ed., Pidginization and Creolization of Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 91–115.Google Scholar
White, Gillian B. (2015). The recession’s racial slant. The Atlantic, June 24, 2015. www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/06/black-recession-housing-race/396725/Google Scholar
Widawski, Maciej. (2015). African American Slang: A Linguistic Description, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wilkerson, Rose. (2000). African-American English in film: “Be” variability. In Auger, Julie and Word-Allbritton, Andrea, eds., IUWPL 2: The CVC of Sociolinguistics: Contact, Variation, and Culture, Bloomington, IN: IULC Publications, 139–56.Google Scholar
Williams, Aaron and Emamdjomeh, Armand. (2018). America is more diverse than ever – but still segregated. The Washington Post, May 10, 2018.Google Scholar
Williams, Robert. (1975). Ebonics: The True Language of Black Folks, St. Louis, MO: Robert Williams and Associates.Google Scholar
www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/national/segregation-us-cities/?utm_term=.826634c6a817Google Scholar
Williamson, Juanita. (1968). A phonological and morphological study of the speech of the Negro in Memphis, Tennessee. American Dialect Society, 50, 1–54.Google Scholar
Winford, Donald. (1992a). Another look at the copula in Black English and Caribbean creoles. American Speech, 67(1), 21–60.Google Scholar
Winford, Donald. (1992b). Back to the past: The BEV/creole connection revisited. Language Variation and Change, 4(3), 311–57.Google Scholar
Winford, Donald. (1997). On the origins of African American Vernacular English – A creolist perspective. Part I: The sociohistorical background. Diachronica, 14(2), 305–44.Google Scholar
Winford, Donald. (1998). On the origins of African American Vernacular English – A creolist perspective. Part II: Linguistic features. Diachronica, 15(1), 99–154.Google Scholar
Woldoff, Rachael A. (2011). White Flight/Black Flight: The Dynamics of Racial Change in an American Neighborhood, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt. (1969). A Sociolinguistic Description of Detroit Negro Speech, Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt. (1971). Black-White speech differences revisited. In Wolfram, Walt, ed., Black-White Speech Relationships, Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics, 139–61.Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt. (1973). Sociolinguistic Aspects of Assimilation: Puerto Rican English in New York City, Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt. (1974). The relationship of White Southern speech to Vernacular Black English. Language, 50(3), 498–527.Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt. (1994). On the sociolinguistic significance of obscure dialect structures: The [NPi Call NPi, V-ing] construction in African-American Vernacular English. American Speech, 69(4), 339–60.Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt. (1998). Black children are verbally deprived. In Bauer, Laurie and Trudgill, Peter, eds., Language Myths, London: Penguin Books, 103–12.Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt. (2001a). On constructing vernacular dialect norms. In Okrent, Arika and Boyle, John, eds., Chicago Linguistic Society 36: The Panels, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 335–58.Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt. (2001b). Reconsidering the Sociolinguistic agenda for African American English: The next generation of research and application. In Lanehart, Sonja, ed., Sociocultural and Historical Contexts of African American English, Amsterdam: Benjamins, 331–62.Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt, Myrick, Caroline, Fox, Michael J., and Forrest, Jon. (2016). The significance of linguistic variation in the speeches of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. American Speech, 91(3), 269–300.Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt and Thomas, Erik. (2002). The Development of African American English, Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt and Schilling, Natalie. (2016). American English: Dialects and Variation, 3rd edn, Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt and Schilling-Estes, Natalie. (1998). American English: Dialects and Variation, Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt and Fasold, Ralph. (1974). The Study of Social Dialects in the United States, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Young, Vershawn. (2007). Your Average Nigga: Performing Race, Literacy, and Masculinity, Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press.Google Scholar
Young, Vershawn. (2009). “Nah, we straight”: An argument against code-switching. Journal of Advanced Composition, 29(1/2), 1–2, 49–76.Google Scholar
Young, Vershawn Ashanti and Martinez, Aja Y., eds. (2011). Code-Meshing as World English: Pedagogy, Policy, Performance, Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

  • References
  • Tracey L. Weldon, University of South Carolina
  • Book: Middle-Class African American English
  • Online publication: 26 January 2021
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139021531.008
Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

  • References
  • Tracey L. Weldon, University of South Carolina
  • Book: Middle-Class African American English
  • Online publication: 26 January 2021
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139021531.008
Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

  • References
  • Tracey L. Weldon, University of South Carolina
  • Book: Middle-Class African American English
  • Online publication: 26 January 2021
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139021531.008
Available formats
×