Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-t5tsf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-13T08:12:56.622Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

3 - The Diffusion of Irrigation Technologies in the Sahara in Antiquity

Settlement, Trade and Migration

from Part II - Technological Mobility and Transfers

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2020

By
Andrew Wilson ,
David J. Mattingly  and
Martin Sterry
Edited by
C. N. Duckworth ,
A. Cuénod  and
D. J. Mattingly
C. N. Duckworth
Affiliation:
University of Newcastle upon Tyne
A. Cuénod
Affiliation:
University of Leicester
D. J. Mattingly
Affiliation:
University of Leicester
Get access

Summary

This chapter reviews the spread of irrigation technology across the Sahara in antiquity, and its effects on settlement agriculture and the movement of people. Recent work has stressed the close connections between the introduction of foggara technology and the rise of Garamantian civilisation, which featured intensive agriculture and incipient urbanism. However, many oases achieved substantial size through the use of well technologies, artesian springs or a combination of technologies. Another key question relates to the effects of the eventual decline and failure of these irrigation systems in terms of population movement and fragmentation of states such as the Garamantes. After presenting new AMS dating evidence for Garamantian foggaras, the chapter advances the discussion by examining the wider picture of foggara distribution within a survey of the evidence of irrigation technologies across the Sahara and whether and to what extent the distribution of foggaras beyond the core Garamantian heartlands might be seen as an indication of Garamantian control or influence. It explores what foggaras, wells and new crop introductions might suggest about agricultural intensification and organisation. This has implications for assessing agricultural intensification in the ancient Sahara. Finally, it considers causes and possible effects of irrigation failure and in some cases collapse.

Keywords

diffusionoasisirrigationfoggarawelltrademigration
Type
Chapter
Information
Mobile Technologies in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond , pp. 68 - 114
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agut-Labordère, D. 2018. The agricultural landscape of Ayn Manawir (Kharga oasis, Egypt) through the Persian period ostraca (Vth–IVth century BC). In Purdue et al. 2018, 359–77.Google Scholar
Aucapitaine, H. 1857. R’adamès, une ville du Sahara. Revue Contemporaine 31: 199–204.Google Scholar
Ballu, A. and Groslambert, A. 1997. L’Archéologie Algérienne de 1895 à 1915: Les Rapports d’Albert Ballu Publiés au Journal Officiel de la République Française de 1896 à 1916. Lyon: Centre d’Etudes Romaines et Gallo-romaines.Google Scholar
Baradez, J. 1949. Vue aérienne de l’organisation romaine dans le sud Algérien: Fossatum Africae. Paris: Arts et Métiers Graphiques.Google Scholar
Barathon, J.-J., El Abbassi, H. and Lechevalier, C. 2005. Les oasis de la région de Tata (Maroc): Abandon de la vie oasienne traditionnelle et adaptation à la vie urbaine. Annales de Géographie 114.644: 449–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barker, G.W., Gilbertson, D., Jones, B. and Mattingly, D. 1996. Farming the Desert: The UNESCO Libyan Valleys Archaeological Survey, Vol. 1 Synthesis. Paris: UNESCO.Google Scholar
Bárta, M. and Brůna, V. 2013. The re-emergence of the El-Hayz Oasis. In Dospěl, M and Suková, L (eds), Bahriya Oasis: Recent Research into the Past of an Egyptian Oasis, Prague: Faculty of Arts, Charles University, 19–34.Google Scholar
Beaumont, P., Bonine, M. and McLachlan, K. (eds) 1989. Qanat, Kariz and Khattara: Traditional Water Systems in the Middle East and North Africa. London: Middle East Centre, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London; Wisbech: Middle East and North African Studies Press.Google Scholar
Berbrugger, A. 1862. Les puits artésiens des oasis méridionales de l’Algérie (2nd edition). Alger: Bastide.Google Scholar
Birebent, J. 1962. Aquae Romanae: Recherches d’hydraulique romaine dans l’est algérien. Alger: Service des Antiquités.Google Scholar
Bisson, J. 1957. Le Gourara: Etude de géographie humaine. Mémoires de l’Institut de recherches sahariennes 3. Alger: Institut de Recherches Sahariennes.Google Scholar
Bisson, J. 1989. The origin and evolution of foggara oases in the Algerian Sahara. In Beaumont et al. 1989, 178–209.Google Scholar
Bousquet, B. 1996. Tell-Douch et sa région. Géographie d’une limite de milieu à une frontière d’empire. Cairo: Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale.Google Scholar
Briant, P. 2001. Irrigation et drainage dans l’antiquité. Qanâts et canalisations souterraines en Iran, en Egypte et en Grèce: Séminaire du Collège de France, mars 2000. Paris: Thotm.Google Scholar
Bruce-Lockhart, J. and Wright, J. (eds) 2000. Difficult and Dangerous Roads: Hugh Clapperton’s Travels in Sahara and Fezzan 1822–1825. London: Sickle Moon.Google Scholar
Buongarzone, R. and De Angeli, S. 2011. L’Oasi di Farafra: Sistemi idrici a qanat e insediamenti di età romana e bizantina. Risultati preliminari della seconda missione dell’Università degli Studi della Tuscia. Ricerche Italiane e Scavi in Egitto 5: 53–69.Google Scholar
Bursaux., 1910. L’oasis de Guettar: Ses ressources; sa décadence; moyens d’y remédier. Revue Tunisienne 83.1: 364–73.Google Scholar
Capot-Rey, R. 1953. Le Sahara Français (L’Afrique Blanche Francaise II). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.Google Scholar
Capot-Rey, R. 1958. L’eau et le sol à el Goléa. Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 17: 83–125.Google Scholar
Capot-Rey, R. and Damade, W. 1962. Irrigation et structure agraire à Tamentit (Touat). Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 21: 99–119.Google Scholar
Caputo, G. 1937. Archeologia. In Reale Società Geographica Italiana 1937, 301–30.Google Scholar
Castellani, V. 1999. Civiltà dell acqua. Archeologia del territorio da Roma arcaica alle antiche civiltà mediterrannee. Rome: Editorial Service System E.S.S.Google Scholar
Chaintron, J.F. 1957/1958. Aoulef: Problèmes économiques et sociaux d’une oasis à foggaras. Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 16: 101–29; 17: 127–56.Google Scholar
Champault, D. 1969. Une oasis du Sahara nord-occidental: Tabelbala. Paris: Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.Google Scholar
Charbonneau, J. (ed.) 1955. Le Sahara Français. Vichy: Wallon.Google Scholar
Chauveau, M. 1996. Les archives d’un temple des oasis au temps des Perses. Bulletin de la Société française d’Égyptologie 137: 32–47.Google Scholar
Chauveau, M. 2001. Les qanats dans les ostraca de Manâwîr. In Briant 2001, 137–42.Google Scholar
Colin, G.S. 1932. La noria marocaine et les machines hydrauliques dans le monde arabe. Hespéris 14: 22–61.Google Scholar
Cornet, A. 1952. Essai sur l’hydrogéologie du Grand Erg occidental et des régions limitrophes (les foggaras). Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 8: 71–122.Google Scholar
Cressey, G.-B. 1958. Qanats, karez and foggaras. Geographical Review 48: 27–44.Google Scholar
Daniels, C.M. 1973. The Garamantes of Fezzan: An interim report of research, 1965–1973. Libyan Studies 4: 35–40.Google Scholar
De Angeli, S. 2013. Qanat landscapes in the oases of the Western Desert of Egypt: The case of the Bahriya and Farafra oases. In Dospěl and Suková 2013, 271–85.Google Scholar
Desanges, J. 1980. (Pline l’ancien) Histoire naturelle Livre V.1–46 (L’Afrique du nord). Paris: Les Belles Lettres.Google Scholar
Despois, J. 1946. Mission scientifique du Fezzan (1944–1945) III: Géographie humaine. Algiers: Imbert.Google Scholar
Despois, J.J. 1960. Bir, iii, the Maghrib. In Gibb, H.A.R., Kramers, J.H., Lévi-Provençal, E, Schacht, J, Lewis, B and Pellat, C (eds), Encyclopaedia of Islam, Volume 1, Leiden: Brill, 1231–32.Google Scholar
De Villiers, M. and Hirtle, S. 2002. Sahara: A Natural History. New York: Walker and Co.Google Scholar
Dospěl, M. and Suková, L. 2013. Bahriya Oasis: Recent Research into the Past of an Egyptian Oasis. Prague: Charles University.Google Scholar
Dozy, R. and De Goeje, M.J. 1866. Description de l’Afrique et de l’Espagne par Edrîsî. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Drake, N., Wilson, A., Pelling, R., White, K., Mattingly, D. and Black, S. 2004. Water table decline, springline desiccation and the early development of irrigated agriculture in the Wadi al-Ajal, Libyan Fazzan. Libyan Studies 35: 95–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Du Puigaudeau, O. and Senones, M. 1947. Le cimetière de Bir ‘Umm Garn. Journal de la Société des Africanistes 17: 51–56.Google Scholar
Durand, J.H. and Guyot, J. 1955. L’irrigation des cultures dans l’oued Righ. Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 13: 75–130.Google Scholar
Echallier, J.-C. 1972. Villages désertés et structures agraires anciennes du Touat et du Gourara. Paris: RMG.Google Scholar
Eldblom, L. 1968. Structure foncière: Organisation et structure sociale. Une étude comparative sur la vie socio-économique dans les trois oasis libyennes de Ghat, Mourzouk et particulièrement Ghadamès. Lund: Uniksol.Google Scholar
English, P.W. 1968. The origin and spread of qanats in the Old World. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 112: 170–81.Google Scholar
Estorges, P. 1964. L’irrigation dans l’oasis de Laghouat. Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 23: 111–37.Google Scholar
Fakhry, A. 1942. Bahria and Farafra Oases: Third Preliminary Report. In Fakhry, A and Drioton, E (eds), Recent Explorations in the Oases of the Western Desert, Cairo: Press of the French Institute of Oriental Archaeology, 71–113.Google Scholar
Fentress, E.W.B. 1979. Numidia and the Roman Army: Social, Military and Economic Aspects of the Frontier Zone. Oxford: BAR.Google Scholar
Fentress, E.W.B. and Wilson, A.I. 2016. The Saharan Berber diaspora and the southern frontiers of Vandal and Byzantine North Africa. In Conant, J and Stevens, S (eds), North Africa under Byzantium and Early Islam, ca. 500–ca. 800, Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 41–63.Google Scholar
Fitzwilliam, Hall n.d., The Living Khettāras of Southern Morocco: A Traditional Water Harvesting Technology on the Brink. https://www.academia.edu/5069877, accessed 9 May 2016.Google Scholar
Fornacciari, C. 1928. Note sur le drain romain de la Soukra: Communication à la séance de la Commission de l’Afrique du Nord, 10 décembre 1929. Bullétin archéologique du comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques 1928: 413–15.Google Scholar
Gast, M. 1995. Des graines nourricières qu’on ne broie pas: les confusions de l’agriculture néolithique saharienne. In Camps, G and Chénorkian (eds), R, L’homme méditerranéen, Aix-en-Provance: Publications de l’Université de Provenance, 249–57.Google Scholar
Gaucher, G. 1948. Irrigation et mise en valeur du Tafilalet. Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 5: 95–120.Google Scholar
Gautier, E.-F. 1935. Sahara: The Great Desert (translated from the French by D.F. Mayhew). New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Goblot, H. 1979. Les qanats: Une technique d’acquisition de l’eau. Industrie et artisanat 9. Paris and New York: Mouton.Google Scholar
Gonon, T. 2018. La gestion de l’eau dans le désert oriental égyptien durant les temps historiques, de l’époque perse à nos jours: Le site de ‘Ayn Manâwîr et la prospection du bassin sud de l’oasis de Kharga. In Purdue et al. 2018, 269–90.Google Scholar
Greene, K. 1994. Technology and innovation in context: The Roman background to Medieval and later developments. Journal of Roman Archaeology 7: 22–33.Google Scholar
Gresse, A. 1901. Restauration des travaux hydrauliques anciens de Sidi-Nasseur-Allah. In Gauckler, P (ed.), Enquête administrative sur les installations hydrauliques romaines en Tunisie, Tunis: Imprimerie rapide, 311–17.Google Scholar
Gruet, M. 1954. Le gisement moutérien d’El Guettar. Karthago. Revue d’Archéologie Africaine 5: 3–79.Google Scholar
Hart, D.M. 1973. The Ait Ba ‘Amran of Ifni: An ethnographic survey. Revue des Mondes Musulmans et de la Méditerranée 15.1: 61–74.Google Scholar
Hbaieb, M.A. 2013. Notes préliminaires à propos d’un système de captage et de partage d’eau dans les environs de Kairouan: La foggara de Sidi Ali b. Nasrallah. In Boukhchim, N, Ben Nasr, J and El Bahi, A (eds), Kairouan et sa Région: Nouvelles recherches d’archéologie et de patrimoine. Actes du 3ème colloque international du Département d’Archéologie (Kairouan 1–4 avril 2009), Kairouan: Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines, Université de Kairouan, 301–15.Google Scholar
Heywood, C. 1926. Algeria and Tunisia. Paris and London: Librairie Hachette.Google Scholar
Jamil, N. 1999. Calph and Qutb: Poetry as a source for interpreting the transformation of the Byzantine cross on steps on Ummayad coinage. In Johns, J (ed.), Bayt al-Maqdis (Oxford Studies in Islamic Art 9), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 11–57.Google Scholar
Kirchner, H. 2009. Original design, tribal management and modifications in Medieval hydraulic systems in the Balearic Islands (Spain). World Archaeology 41.1: 151–68.Google Scholar
Klitzsch, E. and Baird, D.W. 1969. Stratigraphy and palaeohydrology of the Germa (Jarma) area southwest Libya. In Kanes, W.H. (ed.), Geology, Archaeology and Prehistory of the Southwestern Fezzan, Libya (Petroleum Exploration Society of Libya, eleventh annual field conference 1969), Tripoli: Petroleum Exploration Society of Libya, 67–80.Google Scholar
Kobori, I. 1989. Comparative studies on the formation of qanat water system – Pt. I. The Bulletin of the Institute of Social Sciences, Meiji University 12.1: 1–40.Google Scholar
Lambton, A.K.S. 1989. The origin, diffusion and functioning of the qanat. In Beaumont 1989, 5–12.Google Scholar
Laureano, P. 1991. Sahara: Jardin méconnu. Paris: Larousse.Google Scholar
Lethielleux, J. 1948. Le Fezzan: Ses jardins, ses palmiers. Notes d’ethnographie et d’histoire. Tunis: Institut des Belles Lettres Arabes.Google Scholar
Levtzion, N. and Hopkins, J.F.P. (eds) 2001. Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, D.R. 1996. Moroccan khettara: Traditional irrigation and progressive desiccation. Geoforum 27.2: 261–73.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, D.R. and Miller, J.A. 1996. Sijilmassa: The rise and fall of a walled oasis in Medieval Morocco. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 86.1: 78–101.Google Scholar
Liverani, M. 2000. The Libyan caravan road in Herodotus IV.181–184. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 43.4: 496–520.Google Scholar
Lô, Capitaine 1953/1954. Les foggaras du Tidikelt. Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 10: 139–79; 11: 49–77.Google Scholar
Mahdane, M., Lanau, S., Th, Ruf. and Valony, M.-J. 2011. La gestion des galeries drainantes (khettaras) dans l’oasis de Skoura, Maroc. In Dahou, T, Elloumi, M, Molle, F, Gassab, M and Romagny, B (eds), Pouvoirs, sociétés et nature au Sud de la Méditerranée, Paris: Karthala, 209–31.Google Scholar
Malouta, M. and Wilson, A.I. 2013. Mechanical irrigation: Water-lifting devices in the archaeological evidence and in the Egyptian papyri. In Bowman, A and Wilson, A (eds), The Roman Agricultural Economy: Organization, Investment, and Production (Oxford Studies on the Roman Economy), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 273–305.Google Scholar
Margat, J. 1961. Carte Hydrogéologique au 1/50000 de la Plaine du Tafilalt. Rabat: Notes et Mémoires du Service Géologique, Service Géologique du Maroc.Google Scholar
Martel, A. 1965. Les confins Saharo-Tripolitains de la Tunisie (1881–1911). 2 vols. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.Google Scholar
Martin, A.G.P. 1908. Les oasis sahariennes (Gourara – Touat – Tidikelt). Alger: Imprimerie Algérienne.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D.J. 1996. Olive presses in Roman Africa: Technical evolution or stagnation? L’Africa romana 11: 577–95.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D.J. (ed.) 2003. The Archaeology of Fazzan. Volume 1, Synthesis. London: Society for Libyan Studies, Department of Antiquities.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D.J. 2006. The Garamantes: The first Libyan state. In Mattingly et al. 2006: 189–204.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D.J. (ed.) 2007. The Archaeology of Fazzan. Volume 2, Site Gazetteer, Pottery and other Survey Finds. London: Society for Libyan Studies, Department of Antiquities.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D.J. (ed.) 2010. The Archaeology of Fazzan. Volume 3, Excavations carried out by C.M. Daniels. London: Society for Libyan Studies, Department of Antiquities.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D.J. 2011. The Garamantes of Fazzan: An early Libyan state with Trans-Saharan connections. In Dowler, A and Galvin, E.R. (eds), Money, Trade and Trade Routes in Pre-Islamic North Africa (British Museum Research Publications 176), London: British Museum, 49–60.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D.J. (ed.) 2013. The Archaeology of Fazzan. Volume 4, Survey and Excavations at Old Jarma (Ancient Garama) carried out by C.M. Daniels (1962–69) and the Fazzan Project (1997–2001). London: Society for Libyan Studies, Department of Antiquities.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D.J. and Sterry, M.S. 2010. Ghadames Archaeological Survey. Phase 1 Desk-top Report. Unpublished consultancy report produced for Libyan Department of Antiquities, Ghadames Development Authority and BP.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D.J. and Wilson, A.I. 2004. Farming the Sahara: The Garamantian contribution in southern Libya. In Liverani, M (ed.), Arid Lands at the Time of the Roman Empire, Firenze: All’Insegna del Giglio, 39–52.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D.J., McLaren, S., Savage, E., al-Fasatwi, Y. and Gadgood, K. (eds) 2006. The Libyan Desert: Natural Resources and Cultural Heritage. London: Society for Libyan Studies.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D., Sterry, M. and Edwards, D. 2015. The origins and development of Zuwila, Libyan Sahara: An archaeological and historical overview of an ancient oasis town and caravan centre. Azania 50.1: 27–75.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D.J., Leitch, V., Duckworth, C.N., Cuenod, A., Sterry, M. and Cole, F. (eds) 2017. Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond. Trans-Saharan Archaeology, Volume 1. Series editor D.J. Mattingly. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and the Society for Libyan Studies.Google Scholar
Mattingly, D.J., Sterry, M., al-Haddad, M. and Bokbot, Y. 2018. Beyond the Garamantes: The early development of Saharan oases. In Purdue et al. 2018a, 205–28.Google Scholar
Megdiche, F. and Moussa, M. 2014. The qanat as crucial antique water acquisition system common to arid zones’ communities: Two case studies, foggaras in Tunisia and afalaj in Oman. Research Journal of Social Science and Management 3.12. www.theinternationaljournal.org/ojs/index.php?journal=tij&page=article&op=view&path%5B%5D=2864.Google Scholar
Merlo, S., Hakenbeck, S. and Balbo, A.L. 2013. Desert Migrations Project XVIII: The archaeology of the northern Fazzan. A preliminary report. Libyan Studies 44: 141–61.Google Scholar
Mirti, T.H., Wallender, W.W., Chancellor, W.J. and Grismer, M.E. 1999. Performance characteristics of the shaduf: A manual water-lifting device. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 15.3: 225–31.Google Scholar
Moreau, P. 1947. Des lacs de sel au chaos de sable: Le pays des Nefzaouas. IBLA. Revue de l’Institut des Belles Lettres Arabes 10.37: 19–47.Google Scholar
Nachtigal, G. 1974. Sahara and Sudan: Tripoli and Fezzan, Tibesti or Tu (translation and notes by A.G.B. Fisher and H.J. Fisher). London: Hurst.Google Scholar
Nesson, C. 1965. Structures agraire et evolution sociale dans les oasis de l’Oued Righ. Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 24: 85–127.Google Scholar
Oleson, J.P. 1984. Greek and Roman Mechanical Water-Lifting Devices: The History of a Technology. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Oleson, J.P. 2000. Water-lifting. In Wikander, Ö (ed.), Handbook of Ancient Water Technology (Technology and Change in History 2), Leiden: Brill, 207–302.Google Scholar
Ouhssain, M. 2004. Système d’irrigation traditionnelle par khettaras dans le sud est Marocain fonctionnement et role dans la sauvegarde de la vie dans les oasis. Homme Terre et Eaux 129: 8–10.Google Scholar
Pantalacci, L. and Denoix, S. 2008. Travaux de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale en 2007–2008. Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale 108: 371–521.Google Scholar
Popp, H. 1986. L’agriculture irriguée dans la vallée du Souss. Formes et conflits d’utilisation de l’eau. Méditerranée 59: 33–47.Google Scholar
Popp, H. 1990. Oasenwirtschaft in den Maghrebländern: Zur Revision des Forschungsstandes in der Bundesrepublik (Oasis Economy in the Maghrib Countries). Erdkunde 44.2: 81–92.Google Scholar
Purdue, L., Charbonnier, J. and Khalidi, L. (eds) 2018. Des refuges aux oasis: Vivre en milieu aride de la Préhistoire à aujourd’hui. XXXVIIIe rencontres internationales d’archéologie et d’histoire d’Antibes, Antibes: Éditions APDCA.Google Scholar
Rayne, L., Sheldrick, N. and Nikolaus, J. 2017. Endangered archaeology in Libya: Recording damage and destruction. Libyan Studies 48: 23–49.Google Scholar
Reale Società Geographica Italiana (ed.) 1937. Il Sahara Italiano: Fezzan e oasi di Gat. Rome: Società italiana arti grafiche.Google Scholar
Remini, B. and Achour, B. 2013a. The foggaras of In Salah (Algeria): The forgotten heritage. Larhyss Journal 15: 85–95.Google Scholar
Remini, B. and Achour, B. 2013b. Les foggaras de l’Ahaggar: disparition d’un patrimoine hydraulique. Larhyss Journal 14: 149–59.Google Scholar
Remini, B., Achour, B. and Kechad, R. 2010. Les types de foggaras en Algérie. Revue Sciences de l’eau (Canada-France) 25.4: 293–306.Google Scholar
Remini, B., Rezoug, C. and Achour, B. 2014. The foggara of Kenadsa (Algeria). Larhyss Journal 18: 93–105.Google Scholar
Renault, J. 1912. Les bassins du trik Dar-Saniat à Carthage. Revue Tunisienne 19.95: 471–98.Google Scholar
Riser, J. 1996. Dra. In Camps, G (ed.), Encyclopédie Berbère 17: Douiret-Eropaei, Aix-en-Provence: Edisud, 2537–41.Google Scholar
Sanlaville, P. 1957. Les centres de cultures de l’Ahaggar. Revue de Géographie de Lyon 32.4: 333–41.Google Scholar
Savornin, J. 1947. Le plus grand appareil hydraulique du Sahara (nappe artésian dite de l’Albia). Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 4: 25–66.Google Scholar
Savornin, J. 1950. Le Bas Sahara (l’appareil artésian le plus simple du Sahara). Travaux de l’Institut de Recherches Sahariennes 6: 45–62.Google Scholar
Scarin, E. 1934. Le oasi del Fezzan. 2 vols. Bologna: Zanichelli.Google Scholar
Scarin, E. 1937. Descrizione delle oasi e gruppi di oasi. In Reale Società Geographica Italiana 1937: 603–44.Google Scholar
Scarin, E. 1938. La Giofra e Zella (le oasi del 29 parallelo della Libia occidentale). Firenze: Sansoni.Google Scholar
Schacht, I. 2003. A preliminary survey of the ancient qanat systems of the northern Kharga Oasis. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 59: 411–23.Google Scholar
Scheele, J. 2010. Traders, saints and irrigation: reflections on Saharan connectivity. Journal of African History 51.3: 281–300.Google Scholar
Scheele, J. 2017. The need for nomads. Camel-herding, raiding and Saharan trade and settlement. In Mattingly et al. 2017, 55–79.Google Scholar
Sterry, M. and Mattingly, D.J. (eds) 2020. Urbanisation and State Formation in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond, Trans-Saharan Archaeology, Volume 3, series editor D.J. Mattingly, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and the Society for Libyan Studies.Google Scholar
Sterry, M. and Mattingly, D.J. 2013. Desert Migrations Project XVII: Further AMS dates for historic settlements from Fazzan, South-West Libya. Libyan Studies 44: 127–40.Google Scholar
Sterry, M., Mattingly, D., Ahmed, M., Savage, T., White, K. and Wilson, A.I. 2011. DMP XIII: Reconnaissance survey of archaeological sites in the Murzuq area. Libyan Studies 42: 103–16.Google Scholar
Sterry, M., Mattingly, D.J. and Higham, T. 2012. Desert Migrations Project XVI: Radiocarbon dates from the Murzuq region, Southern Libya. Libyan Studies 43: 137–47.Google Scholar
Sterry, M., Mattingly, D.J. and Wilson, A.I. Forthcoming. Foggaras and the Garamantes: Hydraulic landscapes in the Central Sahara. In Rost, S (ed.), Irrigation in Early States: New Directions. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Suter, K. 1962. Über Queltöpfe, Quellhügel und Wasserstollen des Nefzaoua (Südtunesien). Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zürich 107: 49–64.Google Scholar
Thiry, J. 1995. Le Sahara Libyen dans l’Afrique du Nord Médiévale. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 72. Leuven: Peeters, Departement Oosterse Studies.Google Scholar
Trousset, P. 1986. Les oasis présahariennes dans l’antiquité: Partage de l’eau et division du temps. Antiquités Africaines 22: 161–91.Google Scholar
Van der Veen, M. and Westley, B. 2010. Palaeoeconomic studies. In Mattingly 2010, 488–522.Google Scholar
Voinot, L. 1909. Le Tidikelt: Etude sur la géographie, l’histoire, les moeurs du pays. Oran: Editions Jacques Gandini.Google Scholar
Walpole, G.F. 1932. An Ancient Subterranean Aqueduct West of Matruh. Survey of Egypt 42. London: Ministry of Finance.Google Scholar
Ward, P. 1968. Touring Libya. The Southern Provinces. London: Faber.Google Scholar
Wilson, A.I. 2002. Machines, power and the ancient economy. Journal of Roman Studies 92: 1–32.Google Scholar
Wilson, A.I. 2003. Classical water technology in the Early Islamic world. In Bruun, C and Saastamoinen, A (eds), Technology, Ideology, Water: From Frontinus to the Renaissance and Beyond, Roma: Institutum Romanum Finlandiae, 115–41.Google Scholar
Wilson, A.I. 2005. Foggara irrigation, early state formation and Saharan trade: The Garamantes of Fazzan. Schriftenreihe der Frontinus-Gesellschaft 26: 223–34.Google Scholar
Wilson, A.I. 2006. The spread of foggara-based irrigation in the ancient Sahara. In Mattingly et al. 2006, 205–16.Google Scholar
Wilson, A.I. 2009. Foggaras in ancient North Africa: Or how to marry a Berber Princess. In Bridoux, V (ed.), Contrôle et distribution de l’eau dans le Maghreb antique et médiéval, Rome: École française de Rome, 19–39.Google Scholar
Wilson, A.I. 2012. Saharan trade: Short-, medium- and long-distance trade networks in the Roman period. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 47.4: 409–49.Google Scholar
Wilson, A.I. and Mattingly, D.J. 2003. Irrigation technologies: Foggaras, wells and field systems. In Mattingly 2003, 234–78.Google Scholar
Wuttmann, M. 2001. Les qanats de `Ayn-Manâwîr. In Briant 2001, 109–35.Google Scholar
Wuttmann, M., Barakat, H., Bousquet, B., Chauveau, M., Gonon, T., Marchand, S., Robin, M. and Schweitzer, A. 1998. ‘Ayn Manawir (oasis de Kharga): Deuxième rapport préliminaire. Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale 98: 367–462.Google Scholar
Wuttmann, M., Gonon, T. and Thiers, C. 2000. The qanats of ‘Ayn-Manâwîr (Kharga Oasis, Egypt). Journal of Achaemenid Studies and Researches 1. https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-02051616/file/The_Qanats_of_Ayn_Manawir_Kharga_Oasis_E.pdf.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×