References
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 28 March 2024
Summary
A summary is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- The Psychology of Misinformation , pp. 138 - 176Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2024
References
Acerbi, A. (2019). Cognitive Attraction and Online Misinformation. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 5(1), 15. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-019-0224-yGoogle Scholar
Alaphilippe, A., Gizikis, A., Hanot, C., & Bontcheva, K. (2019). Automated Tackling of Disinformation. https://doi.org/10.2861/368879Google Scholar
Albarracín, D., Romer, D., Jones, C. R., Hall Jamieson, K., & Jamieson, P. (2018). Misleading Claims About Tobacco Products in YouTube Videos: Experimental Effects of Misinformation on Unhealthy Attitudes. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 20(6), e229. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.9959Google Scholar
Alfano, M., Fard, A. E., Carter, J. A., Clutton, P., & Klein, C. (2021). Technologically Scaffolded Atypical Cognition: The Case of YouTube’s Recommender System. Synthese, 199, 835–858. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-020-02724-xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ali, A., & Qazi, I. A. (2021). Countering Misinformation on Social Media Through Educational Interventions: Evidence from a Randomized Experiment in Pakistan. ArXiv Preprint. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2107.02775Google Scholar
Allcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(2), 211–236. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.31.2.211Google Scholar
Allen, J., Howland, B., Mobius, M., Rothschild, D., & Watts, D. J. (2020). Evaluating the Fake News Problem at the Scale of the Information Ecosystem. Science Advances, 6(14). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aay3539Google Scholar
Altay, S. (2022). How Effective Are Interventions against Misinformation? PsyArxiv Preprints. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/sm3vkGoogle Scholar
Altay, S., Berriche, M., & Acerbi, A. (2022). Misinformation on Misinformation: Conceptual and Methodological Challenges. PsyArxiv Preprints. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/edqc8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Altay, S., Berriche, M., Heuer, H., Farkas, J., & Rathje, S. (2023). A Survey of Expert Views on Misinformation: Definitions, Determinants, Solutions, and Future of the Field. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-119Google Scholar
Altay, S., de Araujo, E., & Mercier, H. (2022). “If This Account Is True, It Is Most Enormously Wonderful”: Interestingness-If-True and the Sharing of True and False News. Digital Journalism, 10(3), 373–394. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2021.1941163Google Scholar
Altay, S., Hacquin, A.-S., & Mercier, H. (2022). Why Do So Few People Share Fake News? It Hurts their Reputation. New Media & Society, 24(6), 1303–1324. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820969893Google Scholar
Altay, S., & Mercier, H. (2021). Happy Thoughts: The Role of Communion in Accepting and Sharing Epistemically Suspect Beliefs. British Journal of Social Psychology, 62(4), 1672–1692. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12650Google Scholar
Amnesty International. (2015). Ukraine: Homophobic Violence Mars Gay Pride Rally in Kyiv. www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2015/06/homophobic-violence-mars-gay-pride-rally-in-kyiv/Google Scholar
Andı, S., & Akesson, J. (2021). Nudging Away False News: Evidence from a Social Norms Experiment. Digital Journalism, 9(1), 106–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2020.1847674Google Scholar
Anti-Defamation League. (2019). ADL Global 100: Eastern Europe. https://global100.adl.org/map/eeuropeGoogle Scholar
Appel, R. E., Roozenbeek, J., Rayburn-Reeves, R., Basol, M., Corbin, J., Compton, J., & van der Linden, S. (2023). Psychological Inoculation Improves Resilience to and Reduces Willingness to Share Vaccine Misinformation. Under Review.Google Scholar
Aral, S. (2022, April 6). Fake News about Our Fake News Study Spread Faster than Its Truth… Just as We Predicted. Medium. https://sinanaral.medium.com/fake-news-about-our-fake-news-study-spread-faster-than-its-truth-just-as-we-predicted-77db6d9ca8c8Google Scholar
Arechar, A., Allen, J., Berinsky, A. J., Cole, R., Epstein, Z., Garimella, K., Gully, A., Lu, J. G., Ross, R. M., Stagnaro, M. N., Zhang, Y., Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. (2022). Understanding and Reducing Online Misinformation Across 16 Countries on Six Continents. PsyArxiv Preprints. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/a9frzGoogle Scholar
Article 19. (2023, March 3). Turkey: Internet Throttling Violates Human Rights. www.article19.org/resources/turkey-internet-throttling-violates-human-rights/Google Scholar
Arun, C. (2019). On WhatsApp, Rumours, and Lynchings. Economic & Political Weekly, 54(6).Google Scholar
Aslett, K., Guess, A. M., Bonneau, R., Nagler, J., & Tucker, J. A. (2022). News Credibility Labels Have Limited Average Effects on News Diet Quality and Fail to Reduce Misperceptions. Science Advances, 8(18). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abl3844Google Scholar
Athey, S., Cersosimo, M., Koutout, K., & Li, Z. (2023). Emotion-versus Reasoning-Based Drivers of Misinformation Sharing: A Field Experiment Using Text Message Courses in Kenya. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4489759Google Scholar
Axelsson, C.-A. W., Guath, M., & Nygren, T. (2021). Learning How to Separate Fake from Real News: Scalable Digital Tutorials Promoting Students’ Civic Online Reasoning. Future Internet, 13(3), 60. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi13030060Google Scholar
Axelsson, C.-A. W., Nygren, T., Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2023). How Can a Serious Game against Misinformation Be Used in Classrooms? Impact and Effects of Collaboration and Competition. Under Review.Google Scholar
Badawy, A., Addawood, A., Lerman, K., & Ferrara, E. (2019). Characterizing the 2016 Russian IRA Influence Campaign. Social Network Analysis and Mining, 9(1), 31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13278-019-0578-6Google Scholar
Badrinathan, S. (2021). Educative Interventions to Combat Misinformation: Evidence from a Field Experiment in India. American Political Science Review, 115(4), 1325–1341. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055421000459Google Scholar
Bakshy, E., Messing, S., & Adamic, L. A. (2015). Exposure to Ideologically Diverse News and Pinion on Facebook. Science, 348(6239), 1130–1132. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa1160Google Scholar
Banas, J. A., & Miller, G. (2013). Inducing Resistance to Conspiracy Theory Propaganda: Testing Inoculation and Metainoculation Strategies. Human Communication Research, 39(2), 184–207. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12000Google Scholar
Banas, J. A., & Rains, S. A. (2010). A Meta-Analysis of Research on Inoculation Theory. Communication Monographs, 77(3), 281–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751003758193Google Scholar
Banchik, A. V. (2021). Disappearing acts: Content Moderation and Emergent Practices to Preserve at-Risk Human Rights–related Content. New Media & Society, 23(6), 1527–1544. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820912724Google Scholar
Bannon, V. C. (2019). Free Speech and the Regulation of Social Media Content. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45650Google Scholar
Bannon, V. C. (2022). False Speech and the First Amendment: Constitutional Limits on Regulating Misinformation.Google Scholar
Baptista, J. P., & Gradim, A. (2022). Who Believes in Fake News? Identification of Political (A)Symmetries. Social Sciences, 11(10), 460. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11100460Google Scholar
Barberá, P. (2015). Birds of the Same Feather Tweet Together: Bayesian Ideal Point Estimation Using Twitter Data. Political Analysis, 23(1), 76–91. https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpu011Google Scholar
Barberá, P., Jost, J. T., Nagler, J., Tucker, J. A., & Bonneau, R. (2015). Tweeting From Left to Right: Is Online Political Communication More Than an Echo Chamber? Psychological Science, 26(10), 1531–1542. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615594620Google Scholar
Baron, J. (2019). Actively Open-minded Thinking in Politics. Cognition, 188, 8–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2018.10.004Google Scholar
Baron, J., Scott, S., Fincher, K., & Emlen Metz, S. (2015). Why Does the Cognitive Reflection Test (Sometimes) Predict Utilitarian Moral Judgment (and Other Things)? Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 4(3), 265–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2014.09.003Google Scholar
Bartels, M. (2023, February 22). Why Google’s Supreme Court Case Could Rattle the Internet. Scientific American. www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-googles-supreme-court-case-could-rattle-the-internet/Google Scholar
Basol, M., Roozenbeek, J., Berriche, M., Uenal, F., McClanahan, W., & van der Linden, S. (2021). Towards Psychological Herd Immunity: Cross-cultural Evidence for Two Prebunking Interventions against COVID-19 Misinformation. Big Data and Society, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517211013868Google Scholar
Basol, M., Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2020). Good News about Bad News: Gamified Inoculation Boosts Confidence and Cognitive Immunity against Fake News. Journal of Cognition, 3(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.5334/joc.91Google Scholar
Bastos, M., Mercea, D., & Baronchelli, A. (2018). The Geographic Embedding of online Echo Chambers: Evidence from the Brexit Campaign. PLOS ONE, 13(11), e0206841. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206841Google Scholar
BBC News. (2012). China Paper Carries Onion Kim Jong-un “heart-throb” Spoof. www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-20518929Google Scholar
BBC News. (2018, July 19). How WhatsApp Helped Turn an Indian Village into a Lynch Mob. www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-44856910Google Scholar
BBC News. (2021). Covid: Biden Orders Investigation into Virus Origin as Lab Leak Theory Debated. www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-57260009Google Scholar
Becket, S. (2023, July 28). UFO Hearing Key Takeaways: What a Whistleblower Told Congress about UAPs. CBS News. www.cbsnews.com/news/ufo-hearing-congress-uap-takeaways-whistleblower-conference-david-grusch-2023/Google Scholar
Beene, S., & Greer, K. (2021). A call to Action for Librarians: Countering Conspiracy Theories in the Age of QAnon. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 47(1), 102292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2020.102292Google Scholar
Beever, S. (2022, September 16). King Charles Related to “real Dracula” Vlad the Impaler Who Butchered Enemies with Stake. The Mirror. www.mirror.co.uk/news/weird-news/king-charles-related-real-dracula-28008188Google Scholar
Bergsma, L. J., & Carney, M. E. (2008). Effectiveness of Health-promoting Media Literacy Education: A Systematic Review. Health Education Research, 23(3), 522–542. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cym084Google Scholar
Berinsky, A. J. (2018). Telling the Truth about Believing the Lies? Evidence for the Limited Prevalence of Expressive Survey Responding. The Journal of Politics, 80(1). https://doi.org/10.1086/694258Google Scholar
Berlinski, N., Doyle, M., Guess, A. M., Levy, G., Lyons, B., Montgomery, J. M., Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2023). The Effects of Unsubstantiated Claims of Voter Fraud on Confidence in Elections. Journal of Experimental Political Science, 10(1), 34–49. https://doi.org/10.1017/XPS.2021.18Google Scholar
Berriche, M., & Altay, S. (2020). Internet Users Engage more with Phatic Posts than with Health Misinformation on Facebook. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 6(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-0452-1Google Scholar
Bertolin, G., Agarwal, N., Bandeli, K., Biteniece, N., & Sedova, K. (2017). Digital Hydra: Security Implications of False Information Online. https://stratcomcoe.org/publications/digital-hydra-security-implications-of-false-information-online/205Google Scholar
Bezimeni, U. (2011). Determinants of Age in Europe: A Pooled Multilevel Nested Hierarchical Time-Series Cross-Sectional Model. European Political Science, 10, 86–91. https://doi.org/10.1057/eps.2010.12Google Scholar
Bird, C. M., Keidel, J. L., Ing, L. P., Horner, A. J., & Burgess, N. (2015). Consolidation of Complex Events via Reinstatement in Posterior Cingulate Cortex. The Journal of Neuroscience, 35(43), 14426–14434. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1774-15.2015Google Scholar
BMJ. (2021). The BMJ will Appeal after Facebook Fails to Act Over “Fact Check” of Investigation. www.bmj.com/company/newsroom/the-bmj-announces-appeal-after-facebook-fails-to-act-over-incompetent-fact-check-of-investigation/Google Scholar
Bode, L., & Vraga, E. K. (2018). I Do Not Believe You: How Providing a Source Corrects Health Misperceptions across Social Media Platforms. Information, Communication & Society, 21(10), 1337–1353. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1313883Google Scholar
Bode, L., & Vraga, E. K. (2021). Correction Experiences on Social Media During COVID-19. Social Media + Society, 7(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051211008829Google Scholar
Bond, R. M., & Garrett, R. K. (2023). Engagement with Fact-Checked Posts on Reddit. PNAS Nexus, 2(3). https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad018Google Scholar
Bonneuil, C., Choquet, P.-L., & Franta, B. (2021). Early Warnings and Emerging Accountability: Total’s Responses to Global Warming, 1971–2021. Global Environmental Change, 71, 102386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102386Google Scholar
Bor, A., Osmundsen, M., Rasmussen, S. H. R., Bechmann, A., & Petersen, M. B. (2021). “Fact-Checking” Videos Reduce Belief in, but Not the Sharing of Fake News on Twitter. PsyArxiv Preprints. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/a7huqGoogle Scholar
Borger, J. (2004). There Were No Weapons of Mass Destruction in Iraq. The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/world/2004/oct/07/usa.iraq1Google Scholar
Borukhson, D., Lorenz-Spreen, P., & Ragni, M. (2022). When Does an Individual Accept Misinformation? An Extended Investigation Through Cognitive Modeling. Computational Brain & Behavior, 5, 244–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42113-022-00136-3Google Scholar
Boryga, A. (2021, April 8). A ‘healthy’ Doctor Died Two Weeks after Getting a COVID-19 Vaccine; CDC Is Investigating Why. Chicago Tribune. www.chicagotribune.com/coronavirus/fl-ne-miami-doctor-vaccine-death-20210107-afzysvqqjbgwnetcy5v6ec62py-story.htmlGoogle Scholar
Boudry, M., & Hofhuis, S. (2018). Parasites of the Mind. Why Cultural Theorists Need the Meme’s Eye View. Cognitive Systems Research, 52, 155–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2018.06.010Google Scholar
Boulianne, S., & Humprecht, E. (2023). Perceived Exposure to Misinformation and Trust in Institutions in Four Countries Before and During a Pandemic. International Journal of Communication, 17, 2024–2047.Google Scholar
Bovet, A., & Makse, H. A. (2019). Influence of Fake News in Twitter during the 2016 US Presidential Election. Nature Communications, 10(1), 7. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07761-2Google Scholar
boyd, danah. (2018, March 9). You Think You Want Media Literacy… Do You?. Medium. https://medium.com/datasociety-points/you-think-you-want-media-literacy-do-you-7cad6af18ec2Google Scholar
Braddock, K. (2019). Vaccinating against Hate: Using Attitudinal Inoculation to Confer Resistance to Persuasion by Extremist Propaganda. Terrorism and Political Violence. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2019.1693370Google Scholar
Brady, W. J., Wills, J. A., Jost, J. T., Tucker, J. A., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2017). Emotion Shapes the Diffusion of Moralized Content in Social Networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(28), 7313–7318. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1618923114Google Scholar
Brandt, A. M. (2012). Inventing Conflicts of Interest: A History of Tobacco Industry Tactics. American Journal of Public Health, 102(1), 63–71. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300292Google Scholar
Brashier, N. M., Pennycook, G., Berinsky, A. J., & Rand, D. G. (2021). Timing Matters when Correcting Fake News. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(5). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2020043118CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breakstone, J., Smith, M., Connors, P., Ortega, T., Kerr, D., & Wineburg, S. (2021). Lateral Reading: College Students learn to Critically Evaluate Internet Sources in an online Course. Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Misinformation Review. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-56Google Scholar
Brennen, J. S., Simon, F., Howard, P. N., & Nielsen, R. K. (2020). Types, Sources, and Claims of COVID-19 Misinformation.Google Scholar
Brick, C. (2019). A Modest Proposal for Restoration Ecology. Restoration Ecology, 27(3), 485–487. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.12943Google Scholar
British Museum. (2022). The Flood Tablet. www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_K-3375Google Scholar
Broderick, R. (2014). Here’s How a Fake Feminist Hashtag Like #EndFathersDay Gets Started and Why It’ll Keep Happening. BuzzFeed. www.buzzfeednews.com/article/ryanhatesthis/end-fathers-day-and-feminist-troll-accountsGoogle Scholar
Broniatowski, D. A., Jamison, A. M., Qi, S., AlKulaib, L., Chen, T., Benton, A., Quinn, S. C., & Dredze, M. (2018). Weaponized Health Communication: Twitter Bots and Russian Trolls Amplify the Vaccine Debate. American Journal of Public Health, 108(10), 1378–1384. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304567CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bronner, S. E. (2007). A Rumor about the Jews: Antisemitism, Conspiracy, and the Protocols of Zion. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bronstein, M. M., Pennycook, G., Bear, A., Rand, D. G., & Cannon, T. (2019). Belief in Fake News Is Associated with Delusionality, Dogmatism, Religious Fundamentalism, and Reduced Analytic Thinking. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 8(1), 108–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2018.09.005Google Scholar
Bruns, A. (2021). Echo Chambers? Filter Bubbles? The Misleading Metaphors That Obscure the Real Problem. In Hate Speech and Polarization in Participatory Society (pp. 33–48). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003109891-4Google Scholar
Bryanov, K., & Vziatysheva, V. (2021). Determinants of Individuals’ Belief in Fake News: A Scoping Review Determinants of Belief in Fake News. PLOS ONE, 16(6), e0253717. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253717Google Scholar
Bulger, M., & Davison, P. (2018). The Promises, Challenges and Futures of Media Literacy. Journal of Media Literacy Education, 10(1), 1–21.Google Scholar
Burkhardt, J. M. (2017). Combating Fake News in the Digital Age. Library Technology Reports, 53(8). https://doi.org/978-0-8389-5991-6Google Scholar
Caldera, C. (2020, November 28). Fact Check: Fairness Doctrine Only Applied to Broadcast Licenses, Not Cable TV Like Fox News. USA Today. https://usatoday.com/story/news/factcheck/2020/11/28/fact-check-fairness-doctrine-applied-broadcast-licenses-not-cable/6439197002/Google Scholar
Camut, N. (2023, May 30). COVID Might Have Come from a Lab Leak, Says China’s Former Top Scientist. Politico. www.politico.eu/article/covid-mightve-come-from-a-lab-leak-chinas-former-top-scientist-says/Google Scholar
Capewell, G. (2023). The Booster Shot Effect in the Long-Term Effectiveness of Video-Based Inoculation Interventions [Undergraduate dissertation]. University of Cambridge.Google Scholar
Capewell, G., Maertens, R., van der Linden, S., & Roozenbeek, J. (2023). Misinformation Interventions Decay Rapidly without an Immediate Post-Test. Under Review.Google Scholar
Carbonaro, G. (2022). 40% of Americans Think 2020 Election Was Stolen, Just Days Before Midterms. Newsweek. www.newsweek.com/40-americans-think-2020-election-stolen-days-before-midterms-1756218Google Scholar
Carlsson, U. (2019). Understanding Media and Information Literacy (MIL) in the Digital Age: A Question of Democracy. UNESCO. https://jmg.gu.se/digitalAssets/1742/1742676_understanding-media-pdf-original.pdfGoogle Scholar
CBS News. (2011, October 28). Vlad the Impaler: How Is Prince Charles, Queen Elizabeth Related to Him? www.cbsnews.com/news/vlad-the-impaler-how-is-prince-charles-queen-elizabeth-related-to-him/Google Scholar
Celadin, T., Capraro, V., Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2023). Displaying News Source Trustworthiness Ratings Reduces Sharing Intentions for False News Posts. Journal of Online Trust and Safety, 1(5). https://doi.org/10.54501/jots.v1i5.100Google Scholar
Center for Countering Digital Hate. (2021). The Disinformation Dozen: Why Platforms must Act on Twelve Leading online Anti-Vaxxers.Google Scholar
Central Election Commission of Ukraine. (2014). Extraordinary Parliamentary Election 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20171019075244/http://www.cvk.gov.ua/pls/vnd2014/wp039e?PT001F01=910Google Scholar
Chan, M. P. S., & Albarracín, D. (2023). A Meta-Analysis of Correction Effects in Science-Relevant Misinformation. Nature Human Behaviour. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-023-01623-8Google Scholar
Chan, M. P. S., Jones, C. R., Hall Jamieson, K., & Albarracín, D. (2017). Debunking: A Meta-Analysis of the Psychological Efficacy of Messages Countering Misinformation. Psychological Science, 28(11), 1531–1546. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617714579Google Scholar
Channel 4. (2017). C4 Study Reveals only 4% Surveyed Can Identify True or Fake News. www.channel4.com/info/press/news/c4-study-reveals-only-4-surveyed-can-identify-true-or-fake-newsGoogle Scholar
Chater, N., & Loewenstein, G. (2022). The i-Frame and the s-Frame: How Focusing on Individual-Level Solutions Has Led Behavioral Public Policy Astray. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1–60. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X22002023Google Scholar
China Law Translate. (2022, December 11). Provisions on the Administration of Deep Synthesis Internet Information Services. www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/deep-synthesis/Google Scholar
Chivers, T. (2019). What’s Next for Psychology’s Embattled Field of Social Priming. Nature, 576, 200–202. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-03755-2Google Scholar
Cinelli, M., De Fransisci Morales, G., Galeazzi, A., & Starnini, M. (2021). The Echo Chamber Effect on Social Media. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(9), e2023301118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2023301118Google Scholar
Cinelli, M., Quattrociocchi, W., Galeazzi, A., Valensise, C. M., Brugnoli, E., Schmidt, A. L., Zola, P., Zollo, F., & Scala, A. (2020). The COVID-19 Social Media Infodemic. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 16598. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-73510-5Google Scholar
Clayton, K., Blair, S., Busam, J. A., Forstner, S., Glance, J., Green, G., Kawata, A., Kovvuri, A., Martin, J., Morgan, E., Sandhu, M., Sang, R., Scholz-Bright, R., Welch, A. T., Wolff, A. G., Zhou, A., & Nyhan, B. (2020). Real Solutions for Fake News? Measuring the Effectiveness of General Warnings and Fact-Check Tags in Reducing Belief in False Stories on Social Media. Political Behavior, 42(4), 1073–1095. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-019-09533-0Google Scholar
Clayton, N. S., Dally, J. M., & Emery, N. J. (2007). Social Cognition by Food-Caching Corvids. The Western Scrub-Jay as a Natural Psychologist. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 362(1480), 507–522. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2006.1992Google Scholar
Coan, T. G., Boussalis, C., Cook, J., & Nanko, M. O. (2021). Computer-assisted Classification of Contrarian Claims about Climate Change. Scientific Reports, 11(22320). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-01714-4Google Scholar
Cohn, N. (1966). Warrant for Genocide: The Myth of the Jewish World-Conspiracy and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Coleman, S. (2018). The Elusiveness of Political Truth: From the Conceit of Objectivity to Intersubjective Judgement. European Journal of Communication, 33(2), 157–171. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323118760319Google Scholar
Compton, J. (2013). Inoculation Theory. In Dillard, J. P. & Shen, L. (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Persuasion: Developments in Theory and Practice (2nd ed., pp. 220–236). SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452218410Google Scholar
Compton, J. (2018). Inoculation against/with Political Humor. In Baumgartner, J. C. & Becker, A. B. (Eds.), Political Humor in a Changing Media Landscape: A New Generation of Research (pp. 95–113). Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Compton, J. (2020). Prophylactic Versus Therapeutic Inoculation Treatments for Resistance to Influence. Communication Theory, 30(3), 330–343. https://doi.org/10.1093/ct/qtz004Google Scholar
Compton, J. (2021). Threat and/in Inoculation Theory. International Journal of Communication, 15, 4294–4306. https://doi.org/1932–8036/2021FEA0002Google Scholar
Compton, J., & Pfau, M. (2009). Spreading Inoculation: Inoculation, Resistance to Influence, and Word-of-Mouth Communication. Communication Theory, 19(1), 9–28. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2008.01330.xGoogle Scholar
Conzola, V. C., & Wogalter, M. S. (2001). A Communication–Human Information Processing (C–HIP) Approach to Warning Effectiveness in the Workplace. Journal of Risk Research, 4(4), 309–322. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669870110062712Google Scholar
Cook, J. (2020). Cranky Uncle Game: Building Resilience against Misinformation. https://crankyuncle.com/game/Google Scholar
Cook, J., Ecker, U. K. H., Trecek-King, M., Schade, G., Jeffers-Tracy, K., Fessmann, J., Kim, S. C., Kinkead, D., Orr, M., Vraga, E. K., Roberts, K., & McDowell, J. (2022). The Cranky Uncle game – Combining Humor and Gamification to Build Student Resilience against Climate Misinformation. Environmental Education Research. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2022.2085671Google Scholar
Cook, J., Lewandowsky, S., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2017). Neutralizing Misinformation Through Inoculation: Exposing Misleading Argumentation Techniques Reduces their Influence. PLOS ONE, 12(5), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0175799Google Scholar
Copeland, D. A. (2006). The Idea of a Free Press: The Enlightenment and Its Unruly Legacy. Northwestern University Press.Google Scholar
Crockett, M. J. (2017). Moral Outrage in the Digital Age. Nature Human Behaviour, 1(11), 769–771. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0213-3Google Scholar
Culloty, E., Park, K., Feenane, T., Papaevangelou, C., Conroy, A., & Suiter, J. (2021). CovidCheck: Assessing the Implementation of EU Code of Practice on Disinformation in Relation to COVID-19. https://doras.dcu.ie/26472/Google Scholar
Cumming, G. (2021, September 2). Psychological Inoculation? Prebunking? Assessing the Bad News Game That Targets Fake News. The New Statistics. https://thenewstatistics.com/itns/2021/09/02/psychological-inoculation-prebunking-assessing-the-bad-news-game-that-targets-fake-news/Google Scholar
Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency. (2019, June). THE WAR ON PINEAPPLE: Understanding Foreign Interference in 5 Steps. www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/19_0717_cisa_the-war-on-pineapple-understanding-foreign-interference-in-5-steps.pdfGoogle Scholar
Czerniak, K., Pillai, R., Parmar, A., Ramnath, K., Krocker, J., & Myneni, S. (2023). A Scoping Review of Digital Health Interventions for Combating COVID-19 Misinformation and Disinformation. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, 30(4), 752–760. https://doi.org/10.1093/jamia/ocad005Google Scholar
Da San Martino, G., Barrón-Cedeño, A., Wachsmuth, H., Petrov, R., & Nakov, P. (2020). SemEval-2020 Task 11: Detection of Propaganda Techniques in News Articles. Proceedings of the Fourteenth Workshop on Semantic Evaluation, 1377–1414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dan, V., Paris, B., Donovan, J., Hameleers, M., Roozenbeek, J., van der Linden, S., & von Sikorski, C. (2021). Visual Mis-and Disinformation, Social Media, and Democracy. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 98(3), 641–664. https://doi.org/10.1177/10776990211035395Google Scholar
Davis, A. (2010). New Media and Fat Democracy: The Paradox of Online Participation. New Media & Society, 12(5), 745–761. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444809341435Google Scholar
de Ridder, D., Kroese, F., & van Gestel, L. (2021). Nudgeability: Mapping Conditions of Susceptibility to Nudge Influence. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 17(2), 346–359. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691621995183Google Scholar
de Waal, J. R. (2018). Brexit and Trump Voters Are more Likely to Believe in Conspiracy Theories. YouGov. https://yougov.co.uk/topics/international/articles-reports/2018/12/14/brexit-and-trump-voters-are-more-likely-believe-coGoogle Scholar
Debies-Carl, J. S. (2017). Pizzagate and Beyond: Using Social Research to Understand Conspiracy Legends. Skeptical Inquirer, 41(6).Google Scholar
Deer, B. (2004). Revealed: MMR Research Scandal. The Times. www.thetimes.co.uk/article/revealed-mmr-research-scandal-7ncfntn8mjqGoogle Scholar
Del Vicario, M., Bessi, A., Zollo, F., Petroni, F., Scala, A., Caldarelli, G., Stanley, H. E., & Quattrociocchi, W. (2016). The Spreading of Misinformation Online. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(3), 554–559https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1517441113Google Scholar
Delirrad, M., & Mohammadi, A. B. (2020). New Methanol Poisoning Outbreaks in Iran Following COVID-19 Pandemic. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 55(4), 347–348. https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agaa036Google Scholar
DellaVigna, S., & Linos, E. (2022). RCTs to Scale: Comprehensive Evidence from Two Nudge Units. Econometrica, 90(1), 81–116. https://doi.org/10.3982/ECTA18709Google Scholar
Diaz Ruiz, C., & Nilsson, T. (2023). Disinformation and Echo Chambers: How Disinformation Circulates on Social Media Through Identity-Driven Controversies. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 42(1), 18–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/07439156221103852Google Scholar
Dittmar, J. E. (2011). Information Technology and Economic Change: The Impact of The Printing Press. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 126(3), 1133–1172. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr035Google Scholar
Dizikes, P. (2018). Study: On Twitter, False News Travels Faster than True Stories. MIT News. https://news.mit.edu/2018/study-twitter-false-news-travels-faster-true-stories-0308Google Scholar
Dubois, E., & Blank, G. (2018). The Echo Chamber Is Overstated: The Moderating Effect of Political Interest and Diverse Media. Information, Communication & Society, 21(5), 729–745. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2018.1428656Google Scholar
Duron, R., Limbach, B., & Waugh, W. (2006). Critical Thinking Framework for Any Discipline. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 17(2), 160–166.Google Scholar
Dwoskin, E., & Timberg, C. (2021, January 16). Misinformation Dropped Dramatically the Week after Twitter Banned Trump and Some Allies. The Washington Post. www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/01/16/misinformation-trump-twitter/Google Scholar
Dyer, O. (2021a). Covid-19: China Pressured WHO Team to Dismiss Lab Leak Theory, Claims Chief Investigator. BMJ, 374. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n2023Google Scholar
Dyer, O. (2021b). Covid-19: China Pressured WHO Team to Dismiss Lab Leak Theory, Claims Chief Investigator. BMJ, 374(n2023). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n2023Google Scholar
Eady, G., Nagler, J., Guess, A. M., Zilinsky, J., & Tucker, J. A. (2019). How Many People Live in Political Bubbles on Social Media? Evidence From Linked Survey and Twitter Data. SAGE Open, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019832705Google Scholar
Eady, G., Pashkalis, T., Zilinsky, J., Bonneau, R., Nagler, J., & Tucker, J. A. (2023). Exposure to the Russian Internet Research Agency Foreign Influence Campaign on Twitter in the 2016 US Election and Its Relationship to Attitudes and Voting Behavior. Nature Communications, 14(62). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-35576-9Google Scholar
Echikson, W., & Knodt, O. (2018). Germany’s NetzDG: A key Test for Combatting Online Hate. http://wp.ceps.eu/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/RR%20No2018-09_Germany’s%20NetzDG.pdfGoogle Scholar
Ecker, U. K. H., & Antonio, L. M. (2021). Can You Believe It? An Investigation into the Impact of Retraction Source Credibility on the Continued Influence Effect. Memory & Cognition, 49, 631–644. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-020-01129-yGoogle Scholar
Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., & Chadwick, M. (2020). Can Corrections Spread Misinformation to New Audiences? Testing for the Elusive Familiarity Backfire Effect. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 5(1), 41. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-020-00241-6Google Scholar
Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Schmid, P., Fazio, L. K., Brashier, N., Kendeou, P., Vraga, E. K., & Amazeen, M. A. (2022). The Psychological Drivers of Misinformation Belief and Its Resistance to Correction. Nature Reviews Psychology, 1(1), 13–29. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-021-00006-yGoogle Scholar
Ecker, U. K. H., O’Reilly, Z., Reid, J. S., & Chang, E. P. (2020). The Effectiveness of Short‐format Refutational Fact‐checks. British Journal of Psychology, 111(1), 36–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12383Google Scholar
Edwards, L. (2022, January 25). How to Regulate Misinformation. https://royalsociety.org/blog/2022/01/how-to-regulate-misinformation/Google Scholar
El Soufi, N., & See, B. H. (2019). Does Explicit Teaching of Critical Thinking Improve Critical Thinking Skills of English Language Learners in Higher Education? A Critical Review of Causal Evidence. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 60, 140–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2018.12.006.Google Scholar
Emery, D. (2016). Did the 1938 Radio Broadcast of ‘War of the Worlds’ Cause a Nationwide Panic? Snopes. www.snopes.com/fact-check/war-of-the-worlds/Google Scholar
Epstein, Z., Berinsky, A. J., Cole, R., Gully, A., Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2021). Developing an Accuracy-prompt Toolkit to Reduce COVID-19 Misinformation Online. Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Misinformation Review. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-71Google Scholar
European Center for Populism Studies. (2022). Information Warfare. www.populismstudies.org/Vocabulary/information-warfare/Google Scholar
European Commission. (2020). European Democracy Action Plan. https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/new-push-european-democracy/european-democracy-action-plan_enGoogle Scholar
European Commission. (2022). The 2022 Code of Practice on Disinformation. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/code-practice-disinformationGoogle Scholar
European Commission. (2023a, April 25). Questions and Answers: Digital Services Act*. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/QANDA_20_2348Google Scholar
European Commission. (2023b, May 5). The Digital Services Act package. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/digital-services-act-packageGoogle Scholar
Faddoul, M., Chaslot, G., & Farid, H. (2020). A Longitudinal Analysis of YouTube’s Promotion of Conspiracy Videos. ArXiv Preprint.Google Scholar
Faragó, L., Kende, A., & Krekó, P. (2020). We Only Believe in News That We Doctored Ourselves: The Connection Between Partisanship and Political Fake News. Social Psychology, 51, 77–90. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000391Google Scholar
Faragó, L., Krekó, P., & Orosz, G. (2023). Hungarian, Lazy, and Biased: The Role of Analytic Thinking and Partisanship in Fake News Discernment on a Hungarian Representative Sample. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 178. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-26724-8Google Scholar
Fazio, L. K. (2020). Pausing to Consider Why a Headline Is True or False Can Help Reduce the Sharing of False News. Harvard Misinformation Review, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-009Google Scholar
Fazio, L. K., Brashier, N. M., Payne, B. K., & Marsh, E. J. (2015). Knowledge Does Not Protect against Illusory Truth. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(5), 993–1002. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000098Google Scholar
Fazio, L. K., Pillai, R. M., & Patel, D. (2022). The Effects of Repetition on Belief in Naturalistic Settings. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 151(10), 2604–2613. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001211Google Scholar
Fazio, L. K., Rand, D. G., & Pennycook, G. (2019). Repetition Increases Perceived Truth Equally for Plausible and Implausible Statements. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 26(5), 1705–1710. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-019-01651-4Google Scholar
Fazio, L. K., & Sherry, C. L. (2020). The Effect of Repetition on Truth Judgments Across Development. Psychological Science, 31(9), 1150–1160. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620939534Google Scholar
Federal Communications Commission. (2020). History of Commercial Radio. www.fcc.gov/media/radio/history-of-commercial-radioGoogle Scholar
Ferrara, E. (2017). Disinformation and Social Bot Operations in the Run Up to the 2017 French Presidential Election. CoRR, abs/1707.0.Google Scholar
Flaxman, S., Goel, S., & Rao, J. M. (2016). Filter Bubbles, Echo Chambers, and online News Consumption. Public Opinion Quarterly, 80(Specialissue1), 298–320. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfw006Google Scholar
Fletcher, R., & Nielsen, R. K. (2017). Are News Audiences Increasingly Fragmented? A Cross-National Comparative Analysis of Cross-Platform News Audience Fragmentation and Duplication. Journal of Communication, 67(4), 476–498. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12315Google Scholar
Fletcher, R., Robertson, C. T., & Nielsen, R. K. (2021). How Many People Live in Politically Partisan Online News Echo Chambers in Different Countries? Journal of Quantitative Description: Digital Media, 1. https://doi.org/10.51685/jqd.2021.020Google Scholar
Foster, C. A., & Branch, G. (2018). Do People Really Think Earth Might Be Flat? Scientific American. https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/do-people-really-think-earth-might-be-flat/Google Scholar
Fox, M. (2018). Fake News: Lies Spread Faster on Social Media than Truth Does. NBC News. www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/fake-news-lies-spread-faster-social-media-truth-does-n854896Google Scholar
Franta, B. (2018). Early oil Industry Knowledge of CO2 and Global Warming. Nature Climate Change, 8, 1024–1025. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0349-9Google Scholar
Frederick, S. (2005). Cognitive Reflection and Decision Making. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19(4), 25–42. https://doi.org/10.1257/089533005775196732Google Scholar
Freelon, D., & Wells, C. (2020). Disinformation as Political Communication. Political Communication, 37(2), 145–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2020.1723755Google Scholar
Funke, D. (2018, January 19). Italians Can Now Report Fake News to the Police. Here’s Why That’s problematic. Poynter. www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2018/italians-can-now-report-fake-news-to-the-police-heres-why-thats-problematic/Google Scholar
Funke, D., & Flamini, D. (2018). A Guide to Anti-misinformation Actions around the World. Poynter. www.poynter.org/ifcn/anti-misinformation-actions/Google Scholar
Gabbatt, A. (2023, June 6). US Urged to Reveal UFO Evidence after Claim That It has Intact Alien Vehicles. The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/06/whistleblower-ufo-alien-tech-spacecraftGoogle Scholar
Gajanan, Ma. (2017). White House’s Sean Spicer Stands by False Claim That Donald Trump’s Inauguration Was the “Most-Watched” Ever. Time Magazine. https://time.com/4643927/sean-spicer-white-house-donald-trump-inauguration-press-briefing/Google Scholar
Galey, P. (2022). Ukraine Admits the “Ghost of Kyiv” Isn’t Real, but the Myth Was Potent for a Reason. NBC News. www.nbcnews.com/news/world/ukraine-admits-ghost-kyiv-isnt-real-wartime-myth-russia-rcna26867Google Scholar
Gallagher, M. (2023, April 17). Gallagher, Kilmer Introduce Bipartisan, Bicameral Legislation to Bring Transparency and Accountability to Online Political Ads. Gallagher.House.Gov. https://gallagher.house.gov/media/press-releases/gallagher-kilmer-introduce-bipartisan-bicameral-legislation-bring-transparencyGoogle Scholar
Gallo, J. A., & Cho, C. Y. (2021). Social Media: Misinformation and Content Moderation Issues for Congress. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46662Google Scholar
Gallup. (2022, July). Tobacco and Smoking. https://news.gallup.com/poll/1717/tobacco-smoking.aspxGoogle Scholar
Garcia, D., & Rimé, B. (2019). Collective Emotions and Social Resilience in the Digital Traces After a Terrorist Attack. Psychological Science, 30(4), 617–628. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797619831964Google Scholar
Garcia-Pelegrin, E., Schnell, A. K., Wilkins, C., & Clayton, N. S. (2021). Exploring the Perceptual Inabilities of Eurasian Jays (Garrulus glandarius) Using Magic Effects. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(24). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2026106118Google Scholar
Garrett, R. K. (2019). Social Media’s Contribution to Political Misperceptions in U.S. Presidential Elections. PLOS ONE, 14(3), e021350. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0213500Google Scholar
Garrett, R. K., & Bond, R. M. (2021). Conservatives’ Susceptibility to Political Misperceptions. Science Advances, 7(23), eabf1234. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abf1234Google Scholar
Gavin, L., McChesney, J., Tong, A., Sherlock, J., Foster, L., & Tomsa, S. (2022). Fighting the Spread of COVID-19 Misinformation in Kyrgyzstan, India, and the United States: How Replicable Are Accuracy Nudge Interventions? Technology, Mind, and Behavior, 3(3). https://doi.org/10.1037/tmb0000086Google Scholar
GCSI. (2021, February 18). GCS International Joins the Fight against Health Misinformation Worldwide. https://gcs.civilservice.gov.uk/news/gcs-international-joins-the-fight-against-health-misinformation-worldwide/Google Scholar
Geiß, S., Magin, M., Jürgens, P., & Stark, B. (2021). Loopholes in the Echo Chambers: How the Echo Chamber Metaphor Oversimplifies the Effects of Information Gateways on Opinion Expression. Digital Journalism, 9(5), 660–686. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2021.1873811Google Scholar
Gerasimov, V. (2016). The Value of Science Is in the Foresight: New Challenges Demand Rethinking the Forms and Methods of Carrying out Combat Operations. Military Review (January/February). www.armyupress.army.mil/portals/7/military-review/archives/english/militaryreview_20160228_art008.pdfGoogle Scholar
Ghai, S. (2021). It’s Time to Reimagine Sample Diversity and Retire the WEIRD Dichotomy. Nature Human Behaviour, 5(8), 971–972. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01175-9Google Scholar
Ghai, S. (2022). Expand Diversity Definitions Beyond their Western Perspective. Nature, 602(7896), 211–211. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-00330-0Google Scholar
Ghai, S., Magis-Weinberg, L., Stoilova, M., Livingstone, S., & Orben, A. (2022). Social Media and Adolescent Well-being in the Global South. Current Opinion in Psychology, 46(101318). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101318Google Scholar
Gielow Jacobs, L. (2022). Freedom of Speech and Regulation of Fake News. The American Journal of Comparative Law, 70(Supplement_1), i278–i311. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcl/avac010Google Scholar
Gimpel, H., Heger, S., Olenberger, C., & Utz, L. (2021). The Effectiveness of Social Norms in Fighting Fake News on Social Media. Journal of Management Information Systems, 38(1), 196–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/07421222.2021.1870389Google Scholar
Glantz, S. A., Slade, J., Bero, L. A., Hanauer, P., & Barnes, D. E. (1996). The Cigarette Papers. University of California Press.Google Scholar
Godlee, F. (2011). The Fraud Behind the MMR Scare. BMJ, 342(d22). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.d22Google Scholar
Goebbels, J. (1934). Speech to the 1934 Nuremberg Party Rally. In Baines, P. R. & O’Shaughnessy, N. J. (Eds.), Propaganda. Volume 1: Historical Origins, Definitions and the Changing Nature of Propaganda (pp. 151–158). SAGE Publications.Google Scholar
Goel, V., Raj, S., & Ravichandran, P. (2019, July 18). How WhatsApp Leads Mobs to Murder in India. New York Times. www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/07/18/technology/whatsapp-india-killings.htmlGoogle Scholar
González-Bailón, S., Lazer, D., Barberá, P., Zhang, M., Allcott, H., Brown, T., Crespo-Tenorio, A., Freelon, D., Gentzkow, M., Guess, A. M., Iyengar, S., Kim, Y. M., Malhotra, N., Moehler, D., Nyhan, B., Pan, J., Rivera, C. V., Settle, J., Thorson, E., … Tucker, J. A. (2023). Asymmetric Ideological Segregation in Exposure to Political News on Facebook. Science, 381(6656), 392–398. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ade7138Google Scholar
Goodman, M. (2008). The Sun and the Moon: The Remarkable True Account of Hoaxers, Showmen, Dueling Journalists, and Lunar Man-Bats in Nineteenth-Century New York. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Grace, L., & Liang, S. (2023). Examining Misinformation and Disinformation Games Through Inoculation Theory and Transportation Theory. Proceedings of the 56th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences.Google Scholar
Graham, M., Skov, B., Gilson, Z., Heise, C., Fallow, K. M., & Lindsay, D. S. (2023). Mixed News about the Bad News Game. Journal of Cognition, 6(1), 58. https://doi.org/10.5334/joc.324Google Scholar
Grant, T. D. (2015). Annexation of Crimea. The American Journal of International Law, 109(1), 68–95.Google Scholar
Graves, L. (2016). Deciding What’s True: The Rise of Political Fact-Checking in American Journalism. Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Green, M., McShane, C. J., & Swinbourne, A. (2022). Active Versus Passive: Evaluating the Effectiveness of Inoculation Techniques in Relation to Misinformation about Climate Change. Australian Journal of Psychology, 74(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/00049530.2022.2113340Google Scholar
Green, Y., Gully, A., Roth, Y., Roy, A., Tucker, J. A., & Wanless, A. (2023). Evidence-Based Misinformation Interventions: Challenges and Opportunities for Measurement and Collaboration. https://carnegieendowment.org/2023/01/09/evidence-based-misinformation-interventions-challenges-and-opportunities-for-measurement-and-collaboration-pub-88661Google Scholar
Greenemeier, L. (2018). False News Travels 6 Times Faster on Twitter than Truthful News. PBS Newshour. www.pbs.org/newshour/science/false-news-travels-6-times-faster-on-twitter-than-truthful-newsGoogle Scholar
Greifeneder, R., Jaffé, M., Newman, E. J., & Schwartz, N. (2020). The Psychology of Fake News: Accepting, Sharing, and Correcting Misinformation. Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429295379Google Scholar
Grimes, D. R. (2016). On the Viability of Conspiratorial Beliefs. PLOS ONE, 11(1), e0147905. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0147905Google Scholar
Grinberg, N., Joseph, K., Friedland, L., Swire-Thompson, B., & Lazer, D. (2019). Fake News on Twitter during the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election. Science, 363(6425), 374–378. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau2706Google Scholar
Guay, B., Berinsky, A., Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2023). How to Think about Whether Misinformation Interventions Work. Nature Human Behaviour, 7(8), 1231–1233. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-023-01667-wGoogle Scholar
Guess, A. M., Lerner, M., Lyons, B., Montgomery, J. M., Nyhan, B., Reifler, J., & Sircar, N. (2020). A Digital Media Literacy Intervention Increases Discernment Between Mainstream and False News in the United States and India. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(27), 15536–15545. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1920498117Google Scholar
Guess, A. M., Lyons, B., Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2018). Avoiding the Echo Chamber about Echo Chambers: Why Selective Exposure to Like-Minded Political News Is Less Prevalent than You Think. https://kf-site-production.s3.amazonaws.com/media_elements/files/000/000/133/original/Topos_KF_White-Paper_Nyhan_V1.pdfGoogle Scholar
Guess, A. M., Malhotra, N., Pan, J., Barberá, P., Allcott, H., Brown, T., Crespo-Tenorio, A., Dimmery, D., Freelon, D., Gentzkow, M., González-Bailón, S., Kennedy, E., Kim, Y. M., Lazer, D., Moehler, D., Nyhan, B., Rivera, C. V., Settle, J., Thomas, D. R., … Tucker, J. A. (2023a). How Do Social Media Feed Algorithms Affect Attitudes and Behavior in an Election Campaign? Science, 381(6656), 398–404. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abp9364Google Scholar
Guess, A. M., Malhotra, N., Pan, J., Barberá, P., Allcott, H., Brown, T., Crespo-Tenorio, A., Dimmery, D., Freelon, D., Gentzkow, M., González-Bailón, S., Kennedy, E., Kim, Y. M., Lazer, D., Moehler, D., Nyhan, B., Rivera, C. V., Settle, J., Thomas, D. R., … Tucker, J. A. (2023b). Reshares on Social Media Amplify Political News but Do Not Detectably Affect Beliefs or Opinions. Science, 381(6656), 404–408. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.add8424Google Scholar
Guess, A. M., Nagler, J., & Tucker, J. (2019). Less Than You Think: Prevalence and Predictors of Fake News Dissemination on Facebook. Science Advances, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aau4586Google Scholar
Guillory, J. J., & Geraci, L. (2013). Correcting Erroneous Inferences in Memory: The Role of Source Credibility on the Continued Influence Effect. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 2(4), 201–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2013.10.001Google Scholar
Guo, Z., Schlichtkrull, M., & Vlachos, A. (2022). A Survey on Automated Fact-Checking. Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 178–206. https://doi.org/10.1162/tacl_a_00454Google Scholar
Gwiaździński, P., Gundersen, A. B., Piksa, M., Krysińska, I., Kunst, J. R., Noworyta, K., Olejniuk, A., Morzy, M., Rygula, R., Wójtowicz, T., & Piasecki, J. (2023). Psychological Interventions Countering Misinformation in Social Media: A Scoping Review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.974782Google Scholar
Hall Jamieson, K., & Capella, J. N. (2008). Echo Chamber: Rush Limbaugh and the Conservative Media Establishment. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hameleers, M. (2023). The (Un)Intended Consequences of Emphasizing the Threats of Mis-and Disinformation. Media and Communication, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v11i2.6301Google Scholar
Hameleers, M., & van der Meer, T. G. L. A. (2019). Misinformation and Polarization in a High-Choice Media Environment: How Effective Are Political Fact-Checkers? Communication Research, 47(2), 227–250. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650218819671Google Scholar
Hamilton, D. (2023, May 10). ChatGPT User in China Detained for Creating and Spreading Fake News, Police Say. AP News. https://apnews.com/article/chatgpt-china-deepfakes-criminal-detention-7985cf38ffa33b09d3ad4f8ea5299967Google Scholar
Harff, D., Bollen, C., & Schmuck, D. (2022). Responses to Social Media Influencers’ Misinformation about COVID-19: A Pre-Registered Multiple-Exposure Experiment. Media Psychology, 25(9), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2022.2080711Google Scholar
Harjani, T., Basol, M., Roozenbee, J., & van der Linden, S. (2023). Gamified Inoculation against Misinformation in India: A Randomised Control Trial. Journal of Trial and Error. https://doi.org/10.36850/e12Google Scholar
Harjani, T., Roozenbeek, J., Biddlestone, M., van der Linden, S., Stuart, A., Iwahara, M., Piri, B., Xu, R., Goldberg, B., & Graham, M. (2022). A Practical Guide to Prebunking Misinformation. Interventions. https://interventions.withgoogle.com/static/pdf/A_Practical_Guide_to_Prebunking_Misinformation.pdfGoogle Scholar
Harrop, I., Roozenbeek, J., Madsen, J. K., & van der Linden, S. (2023). Inoculation Can Reduce the Perceived Reliability of Polarizing Social Media Content. International Journal of Communication, 16, 1–24.Google Scholar
Hartwig, K., Doell, F., & Reuter, C. (2023). The Landscape of User-Centered Misinformation Interventions – A Systematic Literature Review. ArXiv Preprints. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2301.06517Google Scholar
Hassan, A., & Barber, S. J. (2021). The Effects of Repetition Frequency on the Illusory Truth Effect. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 6(38). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-021-00301-5Google Scholar
He, Z. (1994). Diffusion of Movable Type in China and Europe: Why Were There Two Fates?. International Communication Gazzette, 53(3), 153–173. https://doi.org/10.1177/001654929405300301Google Scholar
Henderson, E. L., Simons, D. J., & Barr, D. J. (2021). The Trajectory of Truth: A Longitudinal Study of the Illusory Truth Effect. Journal of Cognition, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.5334/joc.161Google Scholar
Hertwig, R., & Grüne-Yanoff, T. (2017). Nudging and Boosting: Steering or Empowering Good Decisions. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(6), 973–986. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617702496Google Scholar
Ho, S. S., Chuah, A. S. F., Kim, N., & Tandoc, E. C. (2022). Fake News, Real Risks: How online Discussion and Sources of Fact‐Check Influence Public Risk Perceptions Toward Nuclear Energy. Risk Analysis, 42(11), 2569–2583. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.13980Google Scholar
Hoes, E., Aitken, B., Zhang, J., Gackowski, T., & Wojcieszak, M. (2023). Prominent Misinformation Interventions Reduce Misperceptions but Increase Skepticism. PsyArxiv Preprints. doi: 10.31234/osf.io/zmpduGoogle Scholar
Holbert, R. L. (2013). Developing a Normative Approach to Political Satire: An Empirical Perspective. International Journal of Communication, 7, 305–323.Google Scholar
Holbrook, J. (2001). Republic.com by Cass R Sunstein. Harvard Journal of Law & Technology, 14(2), 753–766.Google Scholar
Hopkins, C. D., & Snyder, G. (2022, May 17). The Military’s UFO Database Now has Info from about 400 Reported Incidents. NPR. www.npr.org/2022/05/17/1099410910/ufo-hearing-congress-military-intelligenceGoogle Scholar
Hornsey, M. J., Bierwiaczonek, K., Sassenberg, K., & Douglas, K. M. (2022). Individual, Intergroup and Nation-Level Influences on Belief in Conspiracy Theories. Nature Reviews Psychology, 2(2), 85–97. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-022-00133-0Google Scholar
Horton, R. (2021). Offline: The Origin Story – Division Deepens. The Lancet, 398(10318), 2221. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02833-6Google Scholar
Hosseinmardi, H., Ghasemian, A., Clauset, A., Mobius, M., & Rothschild, D. (2021). Examining the Consumption of Radical Content on YouTube. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118(32), e2101967118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2101967118Google Scholar
Hsia, R. P.-C. (1992). Trent 1475: Stories of a Ritual Murder Trial. Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Huber, C. R., & Kuncel, N. R. (2016). Does College Teach Critical Thinking? A Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 431–468. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315605917Google Scholar
Hughes, B., Braddock, K., Miller-Idriss, C., Goldberg, B., Criezis, M., Dashtgard, P., & White, K. (2021). Inoculating against Persuasion by Scientific Racism Propaganda: The Moderating Roles of Propaganda Form and Subtlety. PsyArxiv Preprints. https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/ecqn4Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. (2018). Germany: Flawed Social Media Law. www.hrw.org/news/2018/02/14/germany-flawed-social-media-lawGoogle Scholar
Human Rights Watch. (2021, November 17). Greece: Alleged ‘Fake News’ Made a Crime. www.hrw.org/news/2021/11/17/greece-alleged-fake-news-made-crimeGoogle Scholar
Hunt, E. (2017). Trump’s Inauguration Crowd: Sean Spicer’s Claims Versus the Evidence. The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/jan/22/trump-inauguration-crowd-sean-spicers-claims-versus-the-evidenceGoogle Scholar
Hutchings, S., & Szostek, J. (2015). Dominant Narratives in Russian Political and Media Discourse during the Ukraine Crisis. In Pikulicka-Wilcewska, A. & Sakwa, R. (Eds.), Ukraine and Russia. E-International Relations Publishing.Google Scholar
Institute for the Study of War. (2023). Ukraine Conflict Updates. www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/ukraine-conflict-updatesGoogle Scholar
Ivanov, B., Miller, C. H., Compton, J., Averbeck, J. M., Harrison, K. J., Sims, J., Parker, K. A., & Parker, J. L. (2012). Effects of Postinoculation Talk on Resistance to Influence. Journal of Communication, 62(4), 701–718.Google Scholar
Ivanov, B., Parker, K. A., & Compton, J. (2011). The Potential of Inoculation in Reducing Post-Purchase Dissonance: Reinforcement of Purchase Behavior. Central Business Review, 30, 10–16.Google Scholar
Ivanov, B., Parker, K. A., & Dillingham, L. L. (2018). Testing the Limits of Inoculation-Generated Resistance. Western Journal of Communication, 82(5), 648–665. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2018.1454600Google Scholar
Ivanov, B., Rains, S. A., Dillingham, L. L., Parker, K. A., Geegan, S. A., & Barbati, J. L. (2022). The Role of Threat and Counterarguing in Therapeutic Inoculation. Southern Communication Journal, 87(1), 15–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/1041794X.2021.1983012Google Scholar
Iyengar, A., Gupta, P., & Priya, N. (2022). Inoculation against Conspiracy Theories: A Consumer Side Approach to India’s Fake News Problem. Applied Cognitive Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3995Google Scholar
Jack, V. (2022, March 22). Russia Expands Laws Criminalizing “Fake News.” Politico. www.politico.eu/article/russia-expand-laws-criminalize-fake-news/Google Scholar
Jama, A., Ali, M., Lindstrand, A., Butler, R., & Kulane, A. (2018). Perspectives on the Measles, Mumps and Rubella Vaccination among Somali Mothers in Stockholm. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(11), 2428. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112428Google Scholar
Jankowicz, N. (2020). How to Lose the Information War: Russia, Fake News, and the Future of Conflict. I.B.Tauris & Co.Google Scholar
Janmohamed, K., Walter, N., Nyhan, K., Khoshnood, K., Tucker, J. D., Sangngam, N., Altice, F. L., Ding, Q., Wong, A., Schwitzky, Z. M., Bauch, C. T., De Choudhury, M., Papakyriakopoulos, O., & Kumar, N. (2021). Interventions to Mitigate COVID-19 Misinformation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Health Communication, 26(12), 846–857. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2021.2021460Google Scholar
Jenke, L. (2023). Affective Polarization and Misinformation Belief. Political Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-022-09851-wGoogle Scholar
Jeong, S.-H., Cho, H., & Hwang, Y. (2012). Media Literacy Interventions: A Meta-Analytic Review. Journal of Communication, 62(3), 454–472. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01643.xGoogle Scholar
Jigsaw. (2023, February 13). Defanging Disinformation’s Threat to Ukrainian Refugees. Medium. https://medium.com/jigsaw/defanging-disinformations-threat-to-ukrainian-refugees-b164dbbc1c60Google Scholar
Johansson, P., Enock, F., Hale, S., Vidgen, B., Bereskin, C., Margetts, H., & Bright, J. (2022). How Can We Combat online Misinformation? A Systematic Overview of Current Interventions and Their Efficacy. ArXiv Preprint. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2212.11864Google Scholar
Johnson, H. M., & Seifert, C. M. (1994). Sources of the Continued Influence Effect: When Misinformation in Memory Affects Later Inferences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20(6), 1420–1436. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.20.6.1420Google Scholar
Johnson, S. B., Park, H. S., Gross, C. P., & Yu, J. B. (2017). Use of Alternative Medicine for Cancer and Its Impact on Survival. JNCI: Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 110(1), 121–124. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djx145Google Scholar
Jolley, D., & Douglas, K. M. (2017). Prevention Is Better Than Cure: Addressing Anti-Vaccine Conspiracy Theories. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 47(8), 459–469. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12453Google Scholar
Jolley, D., & Paterson, J. L. (2020). Pylons Ablaze: Examining the Role of 5G COVID-19 Conspiracy Beliefs and Support for Violence. British Journal of Social Psychology, 59(3), 628–640. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12394Google Scholar
Jones, S. G. (2022). Russia’s Ill-Fated Invasion of Ukraine: Lessons in Modern Warfare.Google Scholar
Jones-Jang, S. M., Mortensen, T., & Liu, J. (2019). Does Media Literacy Help Identification of Fake News? Information Literacy Helps, but Other Literacies Don’t. American Behavioral Scientist, 65(2), 371–388. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764219869406Google Scholar
Jost, J. T., van der Linden, S., Panagopoulos, C., & Hardin, C. D. (2018). Ideological Asymmetries in Conformity, Desire for Shared Reality, and the Spread of Misinformation. Current Opinion in Psychology, 23, 77–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.01.003Google Scholar
Kahan, D. M. (2013). Ideology, Motivated Reasoning, and Cognitive Reflection. Judgment and Decision Making, 8(4), 407–424. http://journal.sjdm.org/13/13313/jdm13313.pdfGoogle Scholar
Kahn, R., & Cerf, V. (2000). Al Gore and the Internet. The Register. www.theregister.com/2000/10/02/net_builders_kahn_cerf_recognise/Google Scholar
Kaminska, I. (2017, January 17). A Lesson in Fake News From the Info-Wars of Ancient Rome. Financial Times. www.ft.com/content/aaf2bb08-dca2-11e6-86ac-f253db7791c6Google Scholar
Kapantai, E., Christopoulou, A., Berberidis, C., & Peristeras, V. (2021). A Systematic Literature Review on Disinformation: Toward a Unified Taxonomical Framework. New Media & Society, 23(5), 1301–1326. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820959296Google Scholar
Kata, A. (2010). A Postmodern Pandora’s Box: Anti-Vaccination Misinformation on the Internet. Vaccine. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.12.022Google Scholar
Kata, A. (2012). Anti-Vaccine Activists, Web 2.0, and the Postmodern Paradigm – An Overview of Tactics and Tropes Used Online by the Anti-Vaccination Movement. Vaccine, 30(25), 3778–3789. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.11.112Google Scholar
Katsaros, M., Yang, K., & Fratamico, L. (2021). Reconsidering Tweets: Intervening During Tweet Creation Decreases Offensive Content. Proceedings of the Sixteenth International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (ICWSM 2022), 477–487. https://ojs.aaai.org/index.php/ICWSM/article/view/19308/19080Google Scholar
Kean, L., & Blumenthal, R. (2023, June 5). Intelligence Official Says U.S. Has Retrieved Craft of Non-human Origin. The Debrief. https://thedebrief.org/intelligence-officials-say-u-s-has-retrieved-non-human-craft/Google Scholar
Keller, F. B., Schoch, D., Stier, S., & Yang, J. (2020). Political Astroturfing on Twitter: How to Coordinate a Disinformation Campaign. Political Communication, 37(2), 256–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2019.1661888Google Scholar
Killion, V. L. (2019, January 16). The First Amendment: Categories of Speech. Congressional Research Service. https://sgp.fas.org/crs/misc/IF11072.pdfGoogle Scholar
King, K. M., Kim, D. S., & McCabe, C. J. (2019). Random Responses Inflate Statistical Estimates in Heavily Skewed Addictions Data. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 183, 102–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.10.033Google Scholar
Kozyreva, A., Lewandowsky, S., & Hertwig, R. (2020). Citizens Versus the Internet: Confronting Digital Challenges With Cognitive Tools. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 21(3), 103–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100620946707Google Scholar
Kozyreva, A., Lorenz-Spreen, P., Herzog, S. M., Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Hertwig, R., Basol, M., Berinsky, A. J., Betsch, C., Cook, J., Fazio, L. K., Geers, M., Guess, A. M., Maertens, R., Panizza, F., Pennycook, G., Rand, D. J., Rathje, S., Reifler, J., … Wineburg, S. (2022). Toolbox of Interventions against Online Misinformation and Manipulation. PsyArxiv Preprints. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/x8ejtGoogle Scholar
Krause, N. M., Freiling, I., Beets, B., & Brossard, D. (2020). Fact-Checking as Risk Communication: The Multi-layered Risk of Misinformation in Times of COVID-19. Journal of Risk Research, 23(7–8), 1052–1059. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2020.1756385Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R., & Dawkins, R. (1978). Animal Signals: Mind-Reading and Manipulation. In Krebs, J. R. & Davies, N. B. (Eds.), Behavioural Ecology. An Evolutionary Approach. (2nd ed., pp. 380–404). Blackwell Scientific Publications.Google Scholar
Kuklinski, J. H., Quirk, P. J., Jerit, J., Schwieder, D., & Rich, R. F. (2000). Misinformation and the Currency of Democratic Citizenship. The Journal of Politics, 62(3), 790–816. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-3816.00033Google Scholar
Kumkale, T. G., & Albarracín, D. (2004). The Sleeper Effect in Persuasion: A Meta-Analytic Review. Psychological Bulletin, 130(1), 143–172. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.1.143Google Scholar
Kupferschmidt, K. (2023, July 27). Does Social Media Polarize Voters? Unprecedented Experiments on Facebook Users Reveal Surprises. Science. www.science.org/content/article/does-social-media-polarize-voters-unprecedented-experiments-facebook-users-revealGoogle Scholar
Kwan, R. (2022, March 8). Chinese Government Adviser Calls for Law to Ban “Fake News.” The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/08/chinese-government-adviser-calls-for-law-to-ban-fake-newsGoogle Scholar
Kyrychenko, Y., Brik, T., & Roozenbeek, J. (2023). In-group Solidarity Drives Engagement on Social Media during Intergroup Conflict. Under Review.Google Scholar
Larson, H. J. (2020). Stuck: How Vaccine Rumors Start-and Why They Don’t Go Away. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lazer, D. M. J., Baum, M. A., Benkler, Y., Berinsky, A. J., Greenhill, K. M., Menczer, F., Metzger, M. J., Nyhan, B., Pennycook, G., Rothschild, D., Schudson, M., Sloman, S. A., Sunstein, C. R., Thorson, E. A., Watts, D. J., & Zittrain, J. L. (2018). The Science of Fake News: Addressing Fake News Requires a Multidisciplinary Effort. Science, 359(6380), 1094–1096. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aao2998Google Scholar
Leder, J., Schellinger, L. V., Maertens, R., van der Linden, S., & Roozenbeek, J. (2023). Feedback Exercises Boost Discernment and Longevity for Gamified Misinformation Interventions. PsyArXiv Preprints. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/7k2mtGoogle Scholar
Lee, N. M. (2018). Fake News, Phishing, and Fraud: A Call for Research on Digital Media Literacy Education Beyond the Classroom. Communication Education, 67(4), 460–466. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2018.1503313Google Scholar
Lees, J., Banas, J. A., Linvill, D., Meirick, P. C., & Warren, P. (2023). The Spot the Troll Quiz Game Increases Accuracy in Discerning Between Real and Inauthentic Social Media Accounts. PNAS Nexus. https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/xu6mhGoogle Scholar
LEMMiNO. (2016, October 29). The Eight Spiders. YouTube. www.youtube.com/watch?v=OjlKIjLWq-YGoogle Scholar
Leopold, J. (2017, March 6). Here Are The Official Photos Showing Trump’s Inauguration Crowds Were Smaller Than Obama’s. Buzzfeed. www.buzzfeednews.com/article/jasonaleopold/the-national-park-service-has-released-official-photos-of-trGoogle Scholar
Levada-Center. (2022). The Attitude of Russians to Countries: November 2022. www.levada.ru/en/2022/12/16/the-attitude-of-russians-to-countries-november-2022/Google Scholar
Levy, G., & Razin, R. (2019). Echo Chambers and Their Effects on Economic and Political Outcomes. Annual Review of Economics, 11(1), 303–328. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-080218-030343Google Scholar
Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Ecker, U. K. H., Albarracín, D., Amazeen, M. A., Kendeou, P., Lombardi, D., Newman, E. J., Pennycook, G., Porter, E., Rand, D. G., Rapp, D. N., Reifler, J., Roozenbeek, J., Schmid, P., Seifert, C. M., Sinatra, G. M., Swire-Thompson, B., van der Linden, S., … Zaragoza, M. S. (2020). The Debunking Handbook 2020. https://doi.org/10.17910/b7.1182Google Scholar
Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., Seifert, C. M., Schwarz, N., & Cook, J. (2012). Misinformation and Its Correction: Continued Influence and Successful Debiasing. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 13(3), 106–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612451018Google Scholar
Lewandowsky, S., Lloyd, E. A., & Brophy, S. (2018). When THUNCing Trumps Thinking: What Distant Alternative Worlds Can Tell Us about the Real World. Argumenta, 3(2), 217–231.Google Scholar
Lewandowsky, S., & Oberauer, K. (2016). Motivated Rejection of Science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25(4), 217–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721416654436Google Scholar
Lewandowsky, S., Stritzke, W. G. K., Oberauer, K., & Morales, M. (2005). Memory for Fact, Fiction, and Misinformation: The Iraq War 2003. Psychological Science, 16(3), 190–195. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00802.xGoogle Scholar
Lewandowsky, S., & van der Linden, S. (2021). Countering Misinformation and Fake News Through Inoculation and Prebunking. European Review of Social Psychology, 32(2), 348–384. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2021.1876983Google Scholar
Lewandowsky, S., & Yesilada, M. (2021). Inoculating against the Spread of Islamophobic and Radical-Islamist Disinformation. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 6(57). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-021-00323-zGoogle Scholar
Library of Congress. (2021, June 8). Germany: Network Enforcement Act Amended to Better Fight Online Hate Speech. www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2021-07-06/germany-network-enforcement-act-amended-to-better-fight-online-hate-speech/Google Scholar
Löblich, M., & Venema, N. (2021). Echo Chambers. In Balbi, G., Ribeiro, N., Schafer, V., & Schwarzenegger, C. (Eds.), Digital Roots: Historicizing Media and Communication Concepts of the Digital Age (pp. 177–192). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110740202-010Google Scholar
Loomba, S. (2023). Sparse and Partially Observed Large-Scale Networks: Analytic Statistics, Behaviour, and Structural Inference [PhD Thesis]. Imperial College London.Google Scholar
Loomba, S., de Figueiredo, A., Piatek, S. J., de Graaf, K., & Larson, H. J. (2021). Measuring the Impact of COVID-19 Vaccine Misinformation on Vaccination Intent in the UK and USA. Nature Human Behaviour. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01056-1Google Scholar
Loomba, S., Götz, F. M., Maertens, R., Roozenbeek, J., de Figueiredo, A., & van der Linden, S. (2023). Ability to Detect Fake News Predicts Geographical Variation in COVID-19 Vaccine Uptake. Under Review. https://doi.org/10.1101/2023.05.10.23289764Google Scholar
Lopez, J., & Hillygus, D. S. (2018). Why So Serious?: Survey Trolls and Misinformation. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3131087Google Scholar
Lu, C., Hu, B., Li, Q., Bi, C., & Ju, X. D. (2023). Psychological Inoculation for Credibility Assessment, Sharing Intention, and Discernment of Misinformation: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 25, e49255.Google Scholar
Luskin, R. C., Sood, G., Park, Y. M., & Blank, J. (2018). Misinformation about Misinformation? Of Headlines and Survey Design. Unpublished Manuscript. www.gsood.com/research/papers/misinformation_misinformation.pdfGoogle Scholar
Lutzke, L., Drummond, C., Slovic, P., & Árvai, J. (2019). Priming Critical Thinking: Simple Interventions Limit the Influence of Fake News about Climate Change on Facebook. Global Environmental Change, 58, 101964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2019.101964Google Scholar
Lyons, B., Montgomery, J. M., & Reifler, J. (2023). Partisanship and Older Americans’ Engagement with Dubious Political News. PsyArxiv Preprints. doi: 10.31219/osf.io/etb89Google Scholar
Ma, J., Chen, Y., Zhu, H., & Gan, Y. (2023). Fighting COVID-19 Misinformation Through an Online Game Based on the Inoculation Theory: Analyzing the Mediating Effects of Perceived Threat and Persuasion Knowledge. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(2), 980. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20020980Google Scholar
MacDonald, E. (2017, December 1). The Fake News that Sealed the Fate of Antony and Cleopatra. Brewminate. https://brewminate.com/the-fake-news-that-sealed-the-fate-of-antony-and-cleopatra/Google Scholar
Machete, P., & Turpin, M. (2020). The Use of Critical Thinking to Identify Fake News: A Systematic Literature Review (pp. 235–246). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45002-1_20Google Scholar
Mackey, R. (2016). Disinformation, Not Fake News, Got Trump Elected, and It Is Not Stopping. The Intercept. https://theintercept.com/2016/12/06/disinformation-not-fake-news-got-trump-elected/Google Scholar
Madsen, J. K., Bailey, R. M., & Pilditch, T. D. (2018). Large Networks of Rational Agents form Persistent Echo Chambers. Scientific Reports, 8, 12391. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-25558-7Google Scholar
Maertens, R. (2022). The Long-Term Effectiveness of Inoculation against Misinformation: An Integrated Theory of Memory, Threat, and Motivation [PhD dissertation]. University of Cambridge.Google Scholar
Maertens, R., Anseel, F., & van der Linden, S. (2020). Combatting Climate Change Misinformation: Longevity of Inoculation and Consensus Messaging Effects. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 70(101455). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101455Google Scholar
Maertens, R., Götz, F. M., Golino, H. F., Roozenbeek, J., Schneider, C. R., Kyrychenko, Y., Kerr, J. R., Stieger, S., McClanahan, W. P., Drabot, K., He, J., & van der Linden, S. (2023). The Misinformation Susceptibility Test (MIST): A Psychometrically Validated Measure of News veracity Discernment. Behavior Research Methods. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-023-02124-2Google Scholar
Maertens, R., Roozenbeek, J., Basol, M., & van der Linden, S. (2021). Long-Term Effectiveness of Inoculation against Misinformation: Three Longitudinal Experiments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 27(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000315Google Scholar
Maertens, R., Roozenbeek, J., Simons, J., Lewandowsky, S., Maturo, V., Goldberg, B., Xu, R., & van der Linden, S. (2023). Psychological Booster Shots Targeting Memory Increase Long-Term Resistance against Misinformation. PsyArxiv Preprints. doi: 10.31234/osf.io/6r9asGoogle Scholar
Magnúsdóttir, R. (2018). Enemy Number One: The United States of America in Soviet Ideology and Propaganda, 1945–1959. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Margolin, D. B., Hannak, A., & Weber, I. (2017). Political Fact-Checking on Twitter: When Do Corrections Have an Effect? Political Communication, 35(2), 196–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2017.1334018Google Scholar
Marineau, S. (2020). Fact Check US: What Is the Impact of Russian Interference in the US Presidential Election? The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/fact-check-us-what-is-the-impact-of-russian-interference-in-the-us-presidential-election-146711Google Scholar
Martin, D. (2018). #republic: Divided Democracy in the Age of Social Media, by Cass R. Sunstein. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017. 328 pp. ISBN: 978-0691175515. Business Ethics Quarterly, 28(3), 360–363. https://doi.org/10.1017/beq.2018.22Google Scholar
Matchanova, A., Woods, S. P., Neighbors, C., Medina, L. D., Podell, K., Beltran-Najera, I., Alex, C., Babicz, M. A., & Thompson, J. L. (2023). Are Accuracy Discernment and Sharing of COVID-19 Misinformation Associated with Older Age and Lower Neurocognitive Functioning? Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-04464-wGoogle Scholar
Mateo, E. (2018). The Ukraine Crisis: A Clash of Narratives? University Consortium. https://uc.web.ox.ac.uk/article/the-ukraine-crisis-a-clash-of-narrativesGoogle Scholar
Matthias, M. (2022). The Great Moon Hoax of 1835 Was Sci-fi Passed Off as News. Encyclopaedia Brittanica. www.britannica.com/story/the-great-moon-hoax-of-1835-was-sci-fi-passed-off-as-newsGoogle Scholar
Matzko, P. (2021). When Conservatives Forget the History of the Fairness Doctrine. www.cato.org/blog/when-conservatives-forget-history-fairness-doctrineGoogle Scholar
Mayyasi, A. (2016, May 17). The Surprising Reason Why Dr. John Harvey Kellogg Invented Corn Flakes. Forbes. www.forbes.com/sites/priceonomics/2016/05/17/the-surprising-reason-why-dr-john-harvey-kellogg-invented-corn-flakes/Google Scholar
Mazepus, H., Osmudsen, M., Bang-Petersen, M., Toshkov, D., & Dimitrova, A. (2023). Information Battleground: Conflict Perceptions Motivate the Belief in and Sharing of Misinformation about the Adversary. PLOS ONE, 18(3), e0282308. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282308Google Scholar
McCarthy, B. (2021, June 30). Misinformation and the Jan. 6 Insurrection: When ‘Patriot Warriors’ Were Fed Lies. PolitiFact. www.politifact.com/article/2021/jun/30/misinformation-and-jan-6-insurrection-when-patriot/Google Scholar
McGrew, S., Ortega, T., Breakstone, J., & Wineburg, S. (2017). The Challenge That’s Bigger than Fake News: Civic Reasoning in a Social Media Environment. American Educator, 41(3), 4.Google Scholar
McGrew, S., Smith, M., Breakstone, J., Ortega, T., & Wineburg, S. (2019). Improving University Students’ Web Savvy: An Intervention Study. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(3), 485–500. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12279Google Scholar
McGuire, W. J. (1961). The Effectiveness of Supportive and Refutational Defenses in Immunizing and Restoring Beliefs against Persuasion. Sociometry, 24(2), 184. https://doi.org/10.2307/2786067Google Scholar
McGuire, W. J. (1964). Some Contemporary Approaches. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 1(C), 191–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60052-0Google Scholar
McGuire, W. J., & Papageorgis, D. (1961a). Resistance to Persuasion Conferred by Active and Passive Prior Refutation of the Same and Alternative Counterarguments. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 326–332.Google Scholar
McGuire, W. J., & Papageorgis, D. (1961b). The Relative Efficacy of Various Types of Prior Belief-Defense in Producing Immunity against Persuasion. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62(2), 327–337.Google Scholar
McGuire, W. J., & Papageorgis, D. (1962). Effectiveness of Forewarning in Developing Resistance to Persuasion. Public Opinion Quarterly, 26(1), 24–34. https://doi.org/10.1086/267068Google Scholar
McKew, M. K. (2018, February 4). How Twitter Bots and Trump Fans Made #ReleaseTheMemo Go Viral. Politico. www.politico.com/magazine/story/2018/02/04/trump-twitter-russians-release-the-memo-216935/Google Scholar
McPhedran, R., Ratajczak, M., Mawby, M., King, E., Yang, Y., & Gold, N. (2023). Psychological Inoculation Protects against the Social Media Infodemic. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 5780. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-32962-1Google Scholar
Media Defence. (2021, December 14). Are Fake News Laws the Best way to Tackle Disinformation?. www.mediadefence.org/news/are-fake-news-laws-the-best-way-to-tackle-disinformation/Google Scholar
Melki, J., Tamim, H., Hadid, D., Makki, M., El Amine, J., & Hitti, E. (2021). Mitigating Infodemics: The Relationship between News Exposure and Trust and Belief in COVID-19 Fake News and Social Media Spreading. PLOS ONE, 16(6), e0252830. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252830Google Scholar
Mena, P. (2019). Cleaning Up Social Media: The Effect of Warning Labels on Likelihood of Sharing False News on Facebook. Policy & Internet, 12(2), 165–183. https://doi.org/10.1002/poi3.214Google Scholar
Mercier, H. (2017). Confirmation Bias – Myside Bias. In Pohl, R. (Ed.), Cognitive Illusions (2nd ed., pp. 99–114). Routledge.Google Scholar
Mercier, H. (2020). Not Born Yesterday: The Science of Who We Trust and What We Believe. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Mercier, H., & Altay, S. (2022). Do Cultural Misbeliefs Cause Costly Behavior? In Musolino, J., Sommer, J., & Hemmer, P. (Eds.), The Cognitive Science of Beliefs (pp. 193–208). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009001021Google Scholar
Mikkelson, D. (2001, April 22). Do People Swallow Eight Spiders Per Year? Snopes. www.snopes.com/fact-check/swallow-spiders/Google Scholar
Miller, N., & Campbell, D. T. (1959). Recency and Primacy in Persuasion as a Function of the Timing of Speeches and Measurements. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0049330Google Scholar
Milmo, D. (2022, July 4). Legislation Aims to Shield UK Internet Users from State-Backed Disinformation. The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2022/jul/04/legislation-aims-to-shield-uk-internet-users-from-state-backed-disinformationGoogle Scholar
Mirhoseini, M., Early, S., El Shamy, N., & Hassanein, K. (2023). Actively Open-Minded Thinking Is Key to Combating Fake News: A Multimethod Study. Information & Management, 60(3), 103761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2023.103761Google Scholar
Modirrousta-Galian, A., & Higham, P. A. (2023). Gamified Inoculation Interventions Do Not Improve Discrimination between True and Fake News: Reanalyzing Existing Research with Receiver Operating Characteristic Analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001395Google Scholar
Mokkonen, M., & Lindstedt, C. (2016). The Evolutionary Ecology of Deception. Biological Reviews, 91(4), 1020–1035. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12208Google Scholar
Moore, T. (2014). Wittgenstein, Williams and the Terminologies of Higher Education: A Case Study of the Term ‘Critical.’ Journal of Academic Language & Learning, 8 (1), A95–A108.Google Scholar
Mosleh, M., Martel, C., Eckles, D., & Rand, D. G. (2021). Perverse Downstream Consequences of Debunking: Being Corrected by Another User for Posting False Political News Increases Subsequent Sharing of Low Quality, Partisan, and Toxic Content in a Twitter Field Experiment. CHI ’21: Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1145/3411764.3445642Google Scholar
Motta, M., & Stecula, D. (2021). Quantifying the Effect of Wakefield et al. (1998) on Skepticism about MMR Vaccine Safety in the U.S. PLOS ONE, 16(8), e0256395. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256395Google Scholar
National Park Service. (2017, March 3). National Mall & Memorial Parks Inauguration Information. www.nps.gov/aboutus/foia/foia-frd.htmGoogle Scholar
New York Times. (2004). FROM THE EDITORS; The Times and Iraq. New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2004/05/26/world/from-the-editors-the-times-and-iraq.htmlGoogle Scholar
Newman, M. S. (2019). So, Gutenberg Didn’t Actually Invent Printing As We Know It. Literary Hub. https://lithub.com/so-gutenberg-didnt-actually-invent-the-printing-press/Google Scholar
Neylan, J., Biddlestone, M., Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2023). How to “inoculate” against multimodal misinformation: A conceptual replication of Roozenbeek and van der Linden (2020). Scientific Reports, 13(1), 18273. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-43885-2.Google Scholar
Nguyen, C. T. (2020). Echo Chambers and Epistemic Bubbles. Episteme, 17(2), 141–161. https://doi.org/10.1017/epi.2018.32Google Scholar
NOS. (2017, January 23). Zo vaccineer je mensen tegen nepnieuws. Nos.Nl. https://nos.nl/op3/artikel/2154559-zo-vaccineer-je-mensen-tegen-nepnieuwsGoogle Scholar
Nuñez, F. (2020). Disinformation Legislation and Freedom of Expression. UC Irvine Law Review, 10(2). https://scholarship.law.uci.edu/ucilr/vol10/iss2/10Google Scholar
Nygren, T. (2019). Fakta, fejk och fiktion: Källkritik, ämnesdidaktik och digital kompetens. Natur & Kultur.Google Scholar
Nygren, T., Brounéus, F., & Svensson, G. (2019). Diversity and Credibility in Young People’s News Feeds: A Foundation for Teaching and Learning Citizenship in a Digital Era. Journal of Social Science Education, 18(2), 87–109. www.jsse.org/index.php/jsse/article/view/917/1539Google Scholar
Nygren, T., & Guath, M. (2019). Swedish Teenagers’ Difficulties and Abilities to Determine Digital News Credibility. Nordicom Review, 40(1), 23–42.Google Scholar
Nygren, T., & Guath, M. (2021). Students Evaluating and Corroborating Digital News. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 66(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2021.1897876Google Scholar
Nyhan, B. (2017). Why the Fact-Checking at Facebook Needs to Be Checked. www.nytimes.com/2017/10/23/upshot/why-the-fact-checking-at-facebook-needs-to-be-checked.htmlGoogle Scholar
Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2010). When Corrections Fail: The Persistence of Political Misperceptions. Political Behavior, 32(2), 303–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-010-9112-2Google Scholar
Nyhan, B., Settle, J., Thorson, E., Wojcieszak, M., Barberá, P., Chen, A. Y., Allcott, H., Brown, T., Crespo-Tenorio, A., Dimmery, D., Freelon, D., Gentzkow, M., González-Bailón, S., Guess, A. M., Kennedy, E., Kim, Y. M., Lazer, D., Malhotra, N., Moehler, D., … Tucker, J. A. (2023). Like-Minded Sources on Facebook Are Prevalent but Not Polarizing. Nature. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06297-wGoogle Scholar
Oeldorf-Hirsch, A., Schmierbach, M., Appelman, A., & Boyle, M. P. (2020). The Ineffectiveness of Fact-Checking Labels on News Memes and Articles. Mass Communication and Society, 23(5), 682–704. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2020.1733613Google Scholar
Ognyanova, K., Lazer, D., Robertson, R. E., & Wilson, C. (2020). Misinformation in Action: Fake News Exposure Is Linked to Lower Trust in Media, Higher Trust in Government When Your Side Is in Power. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-024Google Scholar
O’Hara, K., & Stevens, D. (2015). Echo Chambers and Online Radicalism: Assessing the Internet’s Complicity in Violent Extremism. Policy & Internet, 7(4), 401–422. https://doi.org/10.1002/poi3.88Google Scholar
O’Loughlin, J., Toal, G., & Kolosov, V. (2017). The Rise and Fall of “Novorossiya”: Examining Support for a Separatist Geopolitical Imaginary in Southeast Ukraine. Post-Soviet Affairs, 33(2), 124–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/1060586X.2016.1146452Google Scholar
O’Mahony, C., Brassil, M., Murphy, G., & Linehan, C. (2023). The Efficacy of Interventions in Reducing Belief in Conspiracy Theories: A Systematic Review. PLOS ONE, 18(4), e0280902. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0280902Google Scholar
Orben, A. (2020a). Teenagers, Screens and Social Media: A Narrative Review of Reviews and Key Studies. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 55, 407–414. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-019-01825-4Google Scholar
Orben, A. (2020b). The Sisyphean Cycle of Technology Panics. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 15(5), 1143–1157. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620919372Google Scholar
Orben, A., Tomova, L., & Blakemore, S.-J. (2020). The Effects of Social Deprivation on Adolescent Development and Mental Health. The Lancet Child Adolescent Health, 4(8), 634–640. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30186-3Google Scholar
Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. (2010). Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming. Bloomsbury Press.Google Scholar
Osmundsen, M., Bor, A., Bjerregaard Vahlstrup, P., Bechmann, A., & Petersen, M. B. (2021). Partisan Polarization Is the Primary Psychological Motivation behind Political Fake News Sharing on Twitter. American Political Science Review, 115(3), 999–1015. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055421000290Google Scholar
Panizza, F., Ronzani, P., Martini, C., Mattavelli, S., Morisseau, T., & Motterlini, M. (2022). Lateral Reading and Monetary Incentives to Spot Disinformation about Science. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 5678. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-09168-yGoogle Scholar
Papageorgis, D., & McGuire, W. J. (1961). The Generality of Immunity to Persuasion Produced by Pre-exposure to Weakened Counterarguments. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62, 475–481.Google Scholar
Papakyriakopoulos, O., & Goodman, E. (2022). The Impact of Twitter Labels on Misinformation Spread and User Engagement: Lessons from Trump’s Election Tweets. Proceedings of the ACM Web Conference 2022, 2541–2551. https://doi.org/10.1145/3485447.3512126Google Scholar
Pariser, E. (2011). The Filter Bubble: What The Internet Is Hiding From You. Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Park, H. S., & Yoon, E. P. (2009). Early movable metal types produced by lost-wax casting. Metals and Materials International, 15(1), 155–158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12540-009-0155-zGoogle Scholar
Parker, K. A., Ivanov, B., & Compton, J. (2012). Inoculation’s Efficacy with Young Adults’ Risky Behaviors: Can Inoculation Confer Cross-Protection Over related but Untreated Issues? Health Communication, 27(3), 223–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2011.575541Google Scholar
Parker, K. A., Rains, S. A., & Ivanov, B. (2016). Examining the “Blanket of Protection” Conferred by Inoculation: The Effects of Inoculation Messages on the Cross-protection of Related Attitudes. Communication Monographs, 83(1), 49–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2015.1030681Google Scholar
Parks, M. (2021, March 25). Few Facts, Millions Of Clicks: Fearmongering Vaccine Stories Go Viral Online. NPR. www.npr.org/2021/03/25/980035707/lying-through-truth-misleading-facts-fuel-vaccine-misinformation?t=1621596471521&t=1622544913288Google Scholar
Paul, K. (2023, May 3). Brazil Receives Pushback from Tech Companies on ‘Fake News’ Bill. The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/world/2023/may/03/alphabet-google-fake-news-lawGoogle Scholar
Paynter, J., Luskin-Saxby, S., Keen, D., Fordyce, K., Frost, G., Imms, C., Miller, S., Trembath, D., Tucker, M., & Ecker, U. (2019). Evaluation of a Template for Countering Misinformation: Real-World Autism Treatment Myth Debunking. PLOS ONE, 14(1), e0210746. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210746Google Scholar
Pennycook, G., Epstein, Z., Mosleh, M., Arechar, A., Eckles, D., & Rand, D. G. (2021). Shifting Attention to Accuracy Can Reduce Misinformation Online. Nature, 592, 590–595. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03344-2Google Scholar
Pennycook, G., McPhetres, J., Zhang, Y., Lu, J. G., & Rand, D. G. (2020). Fighting COVID-19 Misinformation on Social Media: Experimental Evidence for a Scalable Accuracy-nudge Intervention. Psychological Science, 31(7), 770–780. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620939054Google Scholar
Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2019). Lazy, Not Biased: Susceptibility to Partisan Fake News Is Better Explained by Lack of Reasoning than by Motivated Reasoning. Cognition, 188, 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2018.06.011Google Scholar
Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2020). Who Falls For Fake News? The Roles of Bullshit Receptivity, Overclaiming, Familiarity, and Analytic Thinking. Journal of Personality, 88(2), 185–200. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12476Google Scholar
Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2021). The Psychology of Fake News. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 25(5), 388–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2021.02.007Google Scholar
Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2022). Accuracy Prompts Are a Replicable and Generalizable Approach for Reducing the Spread of Misinformation. Nature Communications, 13, 2333. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-30073-5Google Scholar
Pereira, A., Harris, E. A., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2021). Identity Concerns Drive Belief: The Impact of Partisan Identity on the Belief and Dissemination of True and False News. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430221103000Google Scholar
Peter, C., & Koch, T. (2015). When Debunking Scientific Myths Fails (and When It Does Not): The Backfire Effect in the Context of Journalistic Coverage and Immediate Judgments as Prevention Strategy. Science Communication, 38(1), 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547015613523Google Scholar
Peter, L. (2022). How Ukraine’s “Ghost of Kyiv” Legendary Pilot Was Born. BBC News. www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-61285833Google Scholar
Petersen, M. B., Osmundsen, M., & Tooby, J. (2022). The Evolutionary Psychology of Conflict and the Functions of Falsehood. In Barker, D. C. & Suhay, E. (Eds.), The Politics of Truth in Polarized America. Concepts, Causes and Correctives. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/kaby9Google Scholar
Pew Research Center. (2017). Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe: Social Views and Morality. www.pewresearch.org/religion/2017/05/10/social-views-and-morality/Google Scholar
Pfau, M. (1995). Designing Messages for Behavioral Inoculation. In Maybach, E. & Louiselle Parrott, R. (Eds.), Designing Health Messages: Approaches from Communication Theory and Public Health Practice (pp. 99–113). SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452233451Google Scholar
Pfau, M., & Burgoon, M. (1988). Inoculation in Political Campaign Communication. Human Communication Research, 15(1), 91–111. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1988.tb00172.xGoogle Scholar
Phartiyal, S., Patnaik, S., & Ingram, D. (2018, June 25). When a Text Can Trigger a Lynching: WhatsApp Struggles with Incendiary Messages in India. Reuters UK.Google Scholar
Piltch-Loeb, R., Su, M., Testa, M., Goldberg, B., Braddock, K., Miller-Idriss, C., Maturo, V., & Savoia, E. (2022). Testing the Efficacy of Attitudinal Inoculation Videos to Enhance COVID-19 Vaccine Acceptance: A Quasi-Experimental Intervention Trial. JMIR Public Health and Surveillance, 8(6). https://doi.org/10.2196/34615Google Scholar
Piskorski, J., Stefanovitch, N., Nikolaidis, N., Da San Martino, G., & Nakov, P. (2023). Multilingual Multifaceted Understanding of Online News in Terms of Genre, Framing and Persuasion Techniques. Proceedings of the 61st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 3001–3022. https://aclanthology.org/2023.acl-long.169.pdfGoogle Scholar
Pooley, J., & Socolow, M. J. (2013). The Myth of the War of the Worlds Panic. Slate. https://slate.com/culture/2013/10/orson-welles-war-of-the-worlds-panic-myth-the-infamous-radio-broadcast-did-not-cause-a-nationwide-hysteria.htmlGoogle Scholar
Pornpitakpan, C. (2006). The Persuasiveness of Source Credibility: A Critical Review of Five Decades’ Evidence. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34(2), 243–281. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2004.tb02547.xGoogle Scholar
Porter, E., & Wood, T. J. (2021). The Global Effectiveness of Fact-checking: Evidence from Simultaneous Experiments in Argentina, Nigeria, South Africa, and the United Kingdom. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(37), e2104235118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2104235118Google Scholar
Posetti, J., & Matthews, A. (2018). A Short Guide to the History of “Fake News” and Disinformation.Google Scholar
Potter, W. J., & Thai, C. L. (2016). Conceptual Challenges in Designing Measures for Media Literacy Studies. International Journal of Media and Information Literacy, 1(1), 27–42.Google Scholar
Prendergast, S. (2019, March). It Must be True, I Read it on the Internet: Regulating Fake News in the Digital Age. Michigan Technology Law Review. https://mttlr.org/2019/03/it-must-be-true-i-read-it-on-the-internet-regulating-fake-news-in-the-digital-age/Google Scholar
Pretus, C., Van Bavel, J. J., Brady, W. J., Harris, E. A., Vilarroya, O., & Servin, C. (2021). The Role of Political Devotion in Sharing Partisan Misinformation. PsyArxiv Preprints. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/7k9gxGoogle Scholar
Price, V., & Hsu, M. L. (1992). Public Opinion about AIDS Policies. The Role of Misinformation and Attitudes Toward Homosexuals. Public Opinion Quarterly, 56(1), 29–52. https://doi.org/10.1086/269294Google Scholar
Putin, V. (2022). Address by the President of the Russian Federation. en.kremlin.ru. http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/67843Google Scholar
Quinn, M. (2023, May 18). Supreme Court Sides with Social Media Companies in Suits by Families of Terror Victims. CBS News.Google Scholar
Quiring, O., Ziegele, M., Schemer, C., Jackob, N., Jakobs, I., & Schultz, T. (2021). Constructive Skepticism, Dysfunctional Cynicism? Skepticism and Cynicism Differently Determine Generalized Media Trust. International Journal of Communication, 15, 3497–3518.Google Scholar
Rao, T. S. S., & Andrade, C. (2011). The MMR Vaccine and Autism: Sensation, Refutation, Retraction, and Fraud. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 53(2), 95–96. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5545.82529Google Scholar
Rasmussen, J., Lindekilde, L., & Petersen, M. B. (2022). Public Health Communication Decreases False Headline Sharing by Boosting Self-efficacy. PsyArxiv Preprints.Google Scholar
Rathje, S., He, J., Roozenbeek, J., Van Bavel, J. J., & van der Linden, S. (2022). Social Media Behavior Is Associated with Vaccine Hesitancy. PNAS Nexus, 1(4), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac207Google Scholar
Rathje, S., Roozenbeek, J., Van Bavel, J. J., & van der Linden, S. (2023). Accuracy and Social Motivations Shape Judgements of (mis)information. Nature Human Behaviour. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-023-01540-wGoogle Scholar
Rathje, S., Van Bavel, J. J., & van der Linden, S. (2021). Outgroup Animosity Drives Engagement on Social Media. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(26), e2024292118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2024292118Google Scholar
Reddy, P., Sharma, B., & Chaudhary, K. (2022). Digital Literacy: A Review in the South Pacific. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 34, 83–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-021-09280-4Google Scholar
Repnikova, M. (2018, September 6). China’s Lessons for Fighting Fake News. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/09/06/chinas-lessons-for-fighting-fake-news/Google Scholar
Reporters Without Borders. (2020, April 1). Orbán’s Orwellian Law Paves Way for “Information Police State” in Hungary. https://rsf.org/en/orb%C3%A1n-s-orwellian-law-paves-way-information-police-state-hungaryGoogle Scholar
Reporters Without Borders. (2021, January 28). Poland’s New Social Media Law Puts Freedom of Expression at Risk, RSF warns. https://rsf.org/en/poland-s-new-social-media-law-puts-freedom-expression-risk-rsf-warnsGoogle Scholar
Reuters. (2023, January 18). India Considers Banning News Identified as “Fake” by Govt on Social Media. www.reuters.com/world/india/india-considers-banning-news-identified-fake-by-govt-on-social-media-2023-01-18/Google Scholar
Richards, A. S., & Banas, J. A. (2018). The Opposing Mediational Effects of Apprehensive Threat and Motivational Threat When Inoculating against Reactance to Health Promotion. Southern Communication Journal, 83(4), 245–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/1041794X.2018.1498909Google Scholar
Robbe, J. R. (2010). De literaire aspecten van de Costerlegende: Mythologie in de vorm van een klassieke pleitrede. Internationale Neerlandistiek, 48(3), 17–29.Google Scholar
Robertson, R. E., Green, J., Ruck, D. J., Ognyanova, K., Wilson, C., & Lazer, D. (2023). Users Choose to Engage with more Partisan News than they Are Exposed to on Google Search. Nature. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06078-5Google Scholar
Roozenbeek, J. (2020a). Identity Discourse in Local Newspapers Before, During and after Military Conflict: A Case Study of Kramatorsk. Demokratizatsiya: The Journal of Post-Soviet Democratization, 28(3), 419–459.Google Scholar
Roozenbeek, J. (2020b). Media and Identity in Wartime Donbas, 2014–2017 [PhD thesis, University of Cambridge]. www.cam.ac.uk/sites/www.cam.ac.uk/files/jon_roozenbeek_-_media_and_identity_in_wartime_donbas_2014-2017.pdfGoogle Scholar
Roozenbeek, J. (2022). The Failure of Russian Propaganda. www.cam.ac.uk/stories/donbaspropagandaGoogle Scholar
Roozenbeek, J. (2024). Propaganda and Ideology in the Russian-Ukrainian War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Roozenbeek, J., Culloty, E., & Suiter, J. (2023). Countering Misinformation: Evidence, Knowledge Gaps, and Implications of Current Interventions. European Psychologist, 28(3), 189–205. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/b52umGoogle Scholar
Roozenbeek, J., Freeman, A. L. J., & van der Linden, S. (2021). How Accurate Are Accuracy Nudges? A pre-registered Direct Replication of Pennycook et al. (2020). Psychological Science, 32(7), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211024535Google Scholar
Roozenbeek, J., Lasser, J., Garcia, D., Goldberg, B., van der Linden, S., & Lewandowsky, S. (2023). How Do Inoculation Interventions Impact Twitter Sharing Behavior? Results from Two Pre-registered Studies. Under Review.Google Scholar
Roozenbeek, J., Maertens, R., Herzog, S., Geers, M., Kurvers, R., Sultan, M., & van der Linden, S. (2022). Susceptibility to Misinformation Is Consistent Across Question Framings and Response Modes and Better Explained by Myside Bias and Partisanship than Analytical Thinking. Judgment and Decision Making, 17(3), 547–573. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1930297500003570Google Scholar
Roozenbeek, J., Maertens, R., McClanahan, W., & van der Linden, S. (2021). Disentangling Item and Testing Effects in Inoculation Research on Online Misinformation. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 81(2), 340–362. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164420940378Google Scholar
Roozenbeek, J., Schneider, C. R., Dryhurst, S., Kerr, J., Freeman, A. L. J., Recchia, G., van der Bles, A. M., & van der Linden, S. (2020). Susceptibility to Misinformation about COVID-19 around the World. Royal Society Open Science, 7(201199). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.201199Google Scholar
Roozenbeek, J., Traberg, C. S., & van der Linden, S. (2022). Technique-based Inoculation against Real-world Misinformation. Royal Society Open Science, 9(211719). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.211719Google Scholar
Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2018). The Fake News Game: Actively Inoculating against the Risk of Misinformation. Journal of Risk Research, 22(5), 570–580. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2018.1443491Google Scholar
Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2019). Fake News Game Confers Psychological Resistance against Online Misinformation. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 5(65), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-019-0279-9Google Scholar
Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2020). Breaking Harmony Square: A Game that “inoculates” against Political Misinformation. The Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Misinformation Review, 1(8). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-47Google Scholar
Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2022). How to Combat Health Misinformation: A Psychological Approach. American Journal of Health Promotion, 36(3), 569–575. https://doi.org/10.1177/08901171211070958Google Scholar
Roozenbeek, J., van der Linden, S., Goldberg, B., Rathje, S., & Lewandowsky, S. (2022). Psychological Inoculation Improves Resilience against Misinformation on Social Media. Science Advances, 8(34). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abo6254Google Scholar
Roozenbeek, J., van der Linden, S., & Nygren, T. (2020). Prebunking Interventions Based on “inoculation” Theory Can Reduce Susceptibility to Misinformation across Cultures. The Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Misinformation Review, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.37016//mr-2020-008Google Scholar
Roozenbeek, J., & Zollo, F. (2022). Democratize Social-media Research – With Access and Funding. Nature, 612(7940), 404. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-04407-8Google Scholar
Ross Arguedas, A., Robertson, C. T., Fletcher, R., & Kleis Nielsen, R. (2022). Echo Chambers, Filter Bubbles, and Polarisation: A Literature Review.Google Scholar
Rozado, D., Hughes, R., & Halberstadt, J. (2022). Longitudinal Analysis of Sentiment and Emotion in News Media Headlines Using Automated Labelling with Transformer Language Models. PLOS ONE, 17(10), e0276367. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276367Google Scholar
RTÉ News. (2022). Elderly Ukrainian Woman Berates Occupying Russian Soldiers. YouTube. www.youtube.com/watch?v=0QFGwkOWtKoGoogle Scholar
Ruane, K. A. (2010). Fairness Doctrine: History and Constitutional Issues. Journal of Current Issues in Crime, Law and Law Enforcement, 2(1), 75–89.Google Scholar
Saleh, N., Makki, F., van der Linden, S., & Roozenbeek, J. (2023). Inoculating against Extremist Persuasion Techniques – Results from a Randomised Controlled Trial in Post-Conflict Areas in Iraq. Advances in Psychology, 1(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.56296/aip00005Google Scholar
Saleh, N., Roozenbeek, J., Makki, F., McClanahan, W., & van der Linden, S. (2021). Active Inoculation Boosts Attitudinal Resistance against Extremist Persuasion Techniques – A Novel Approach Towards the Prevention of Violent Extremism. Behavioural Public Policy, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1017/bpp.2020.60Google Scholar
Saltor, J., Barberia, I., & Rodríguez‐Ferreiro, J. (2023). Thinking Disposition, Thinking Style, and Susceptibility to Causal Illusion Predict Fake News Discriminability. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 37(2), 360–368. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.4008Google Scholar
Saltz, E., Barari, S., Leibowicz, C., & Wardle, C. (2021). Misinformation Interventions Are Common, Divisive, and Poorly Understood. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-81Google Scholar
San Martino, A., & Perramon, X. (2010). Phishing Secrets: History, Effects, and Countermeasures. International Journal of Network Security, 11(3), 163–171.Google Scholar
Sasaki, S., Kurokawa, H., & Ohtake, F. (2021). Effective but Fragile? Responses to Repeated Nudge-based Messages for Preventing the Spread of COVID-19 Infection. The Japanese Economic Review, 62, 371–408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42973-021-00076-wGoogle Scholar
Sasse, G. (2019). Most People in Separatist-held areas of Donbas Prefer Reintegration with Ukraine – New Survey. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/most-people-in-separatist-held-areas-of-donbas-prefer-reintegration-with-ukraine-new-survey-124849Google Scholar
Sasse, G., & Lackner, A. (2019). Attitudes and Identities across the Donbas Front line: What has Changed from 2016 to 2019? Zentrum für Osteuropa- und internationale Studien, No. 3 (August 2019). www.zois-berlin.de/en/publications/attitudes-and-identities-across-the-donbas-front-line-what-has-changed-from-2016-to-2019Google Scholar
Schimmack, U. (2020, December 30). A Meta-Scientific Perspective on “Thinking: Fast and Slow.” Replication Index. https://replicationindex.com/category/implicit-priming/Google Scholar
Schimmack, U., Heene, M., & Kesavan, K. (2017, February 2). Reconstruction of a Train Wreck: How Priming Research Went off the Rails. Replication Index. https://replicationindex.com/2017/02/02/reconstruction-of-a-train-wreck-how-priming-research-went-of-the-rails/Google Scholar
Schlichtkrull, M., Ousidhoum, N., & Vlachos, A. (2023). The Intended Uses of Automated Fact-Checking Artefacts: Why, How and Who. Arxiv Preprints. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2304.14238Google Scholar
Schmid, P., Altay, S., & Scherer, L. (2023). The Psychological Impacts and Message Features of Health Misinformation: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. European Psychologist, 28(3), 162–172. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000494Google Scholar
Schmid-Petri, H., & Bürger, M. (2021). The Effect of Misinformation and Inoculation: Replication of an Experiment on the Effect of False Experts in the Context of Climate Change Communication. Public Understanding of Science, 31(2), 152–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/09636625211024550Google Scholar
Schreiber, M. (2022). “Bot Holiday”: Covid Disinformation Down as Social Media Pivot to Ukraine. The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/media/2022/mar/04/bot-holiday-covid-misinformation-ukraine-social-mediaGoogle Scholar
Schwartz, A. B. (2015). Broadcast Hysteria: Orson Welles’s War of the Worlds and the Art of Fake News. Hill & Wang.Google Scholar
Scott, M., & Dickson, A. (2023, February 28). How UK’s Online Safety Bill fell victim to never-ending political crisis. Politico. www.politico.eu/article/online-safety-bill-uk-westminster-politics/Google Scholar
Shi, W. (2023). Efficacy of Educational Misinformation Games. ArXiv Preprints. doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2305.09429Google Scholar
Sifuentes, J. (2019, November 20). La propaganda de la guerra civil entre Octaviano y Marco Antonio. World History Encyclopedia. www.worldhistory.org/trans/es/2-1474/la-propaganda-de-la-guerra-civil-entre-octaviano-y/Google Scholar
Silva, M., Giovanini, L., Fernandes, J., Oliveira, D., & Silva, C. S. (2023). What Makes Disinformation Ads Engaging? A Case Study of Facebook Ads from the Russian Active Measures Campaign. Journal of Interactive Advertising. https://doi.org/10.1080/15252019.2023.2173991Google Scholar
Snopes. (2016). Protests Seek to #EndFathersDay? www.snopes.com/fact-check/fathers-day-protest-photo/Google Scholar
Social Science Research Council. (2022). Building a Better Toolkit (for Fighting Misinformation): Large Collaborative Project to Compare Misinformation Interventions. www.ssrc.org.Google Scholar
Soll, J. (2016). The Long and Brutal History of Fake News. Politico. www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/12/fake-news-history-long-violent-214535/Google Scholar
Soniak, M. (2023, March 6). When Corn Flakes Were Part of an Anti-Masturbation Crusade. Mental Floss. www.mentalfloss.com/article/32042/corn-flakes-were-invented-part-anti-masturbation-crusadeGoogle Scholar
Stamouli, N. (2022, August 8). How Greece became Europe’s Worst Place for Press Freedom. Politico. www.politico.eu/article/greece-became-europe-worst-place-press-freedom/Google Scholar
Stanford Research into the Impact of Tobacco Advertising. (2021). More Doctors Smoke Camels. Tobacco.Stanford.Edu. https://tobacco.stanford.edu/cigarette/img0074/dGoogle Scholar
Stanovich, K. E., & Toplak, M. E. (2023). Actively Open-Minded Thinking and Its Measurement. Journal of Intelligence, 11(2), 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11020027Google Scholar
Stanovich, K. E., West, R. F., & Toplak, M. E. (2013). Myside Bias, Rational Thinking, and Intelligence. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(4), 259–264. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413480174Google Scholar
Starbird, K. (2019). Disinformation’s Spread: Bots, Trolls and All of Us. Nature, 571(449). https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-02235-xGoogle Scholar
Starmans, B. J. (2019). 10 Examples of Fake News from History. The Social Historian. www.thesocialhistorian.com/fake-news/Google Scholar
Steele, E. J., Gorczynski, R. M., Lindley, R. A., Tokoro, G., Temple, R., & Wickramasinghe, N. C. (2020). Origin of New Emergent Coronavirus and Candida Fungal Diseases-Terrestrial or Cosmic? Advances in Genetics, 106, 75–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.adgen.2020.04.002Google Scholar
Steele, M. A., Halkin, S. L., Smallwood, P. D., McKenna, T. J., Mitsopoulos, K., & Beam, M. (2008). Cache Protection Strategies of a Scatter-hoarding Rodent: Do Tree Squirrels Engage in Behavioural Deception? Animal Behaviour, 75(2), 705–714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.07.026Google Scholar
Sunstein, C. R. (2017). #republic: Divided Democracy in the Age of Social Media. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Sunstein, C. R. (2023). Conspiracy Theory: On Certain Misconceptions about the Uses of Behavioral Science in Government. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4320348Google Scholar
Supreme Court of the United States. ( 2023, May 18). TWITTER, INC. v. TAAMNEH ET AL. CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT. www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/22pdf/21-1496_d18f.pdfGoogle Scholar
Sussman, G. (2021). Propaganda and the Cold War. Journalism & Communication Monographs, 23(1), 70–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/1522637920983768Google Scholar
Swift, J. (1726). Travels Into Several Remote Nations of the World. In Four Parts. By Lemuel Gulliver, First a Surgeon, and then a Captain of Several Ships. Benjamin Motte.Google Scholar
Swift, J. (1729). A Modest Proposal for Preventing the Children of Poor People From being a Burthen to Their Parents or Country, and For Making them Beneficial to the Publick. Project Gutenberg. www.gutenberg.org/files/1080/1080-h/1080-h.htmGoogle Scholar
Swire-Thompson, B., DeGutis, J., & Lazer, D. (2020). Searching for the Backfire Effect: Measurement and Design Considerations. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 9(3), 286–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.06.006Google Scholar
Swire-Thompson, B., Miklaucic, N., Wihbey, J., Lazer, D., & DeGutis, J. (2022). Backfire Effects after Correcting Misinformation Are Strongly Associated with Reliability. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 151(7), 1655–1665. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001131Google Scholar
Szebeni, Z., Lönnqvist, J.-E., & Jasinskaja-Lahti, I. (2021). Social Psychological Predictors of Belief in Fake News in the Run-Up to the 2019 Hungarian Elections: The Importance of Conspiracy Mentality Supports the Notion of Ideological Symmetry in Fake News Belief. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790848Google Scholar
Szostek, J. (2017). The Power and Limits of Russia’s Strategic Narrative in Ukraine: The Role of Linkage. Perspectives on Politics, 15(2), 379–395. https://doi.org/10.1017/S153759271700007XGoogle Scholar
Tandoc, E. C., Lim, Z. W., & Ling, R. (2018). Defining “Fake News.” Digital Journalism, 6(2), 137–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2017.1360143Google Scholar
Tappin, B. M., Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2020). Bayesian or Biased? Analytic Thinking and Political Belief Updating. Cognition, 204, 104375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104375Google Scholar
Tay, L. Q., Hurlstone, M. J., Kurz, T., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2021). A Comparison of Prebunking and Debunking Interventions for Implied Versus Explicit Misinformation. British Journal of Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12551Google Scholar
Tearle, O. (2021). Who Said, “A Lie Is Halfway Round the World Before the Truth Has Got Its Boots On”? Interesting Literature. https://interestingliterature.com/2021/06/lie-halfway-round-world-before-truth-boots-on-quote-origin-meaning/Google Scholar
Terrell, M. C. (1904). Lynching from a Negro’s Point of View. The North American Review, 178(571), 853–868. www.jstor.org/stable/25150991Google Scholar
Terren, L., & Borge-Bravo, R. (2021). Echo Chambers on Social Media: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Review of Communication Research, 9, 99–118. https://doi.org/10.12840/ISSN.2255-4165.028Google Scholar
Teter, M. (2020). Blood Libel: On the Trail of an Antisemitic Myth. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Thakur, P., & Ward, A. L. (2019, March 3). Nuclear Crisis Communication in an Era of Fake News and Media Overload – 19414. WM2019: 45. Annual Waste Management Conference. www.osti.gov/biblio/23005317Google Scholar
Thaler, R., & Sunstein, C. R. (2008). Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness. Yale University Press.Google Scholar
The Onion. (2012). Kim Jong-Un Named The Onion’s Sexiest Man Alive For 2012. The Onion. www.theonion.com/kim-jong-un-named-the-onions-sexiest-man-alive-for-2012-1819574194Google Scholar
The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military. (2002). Information Warfare. www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199891580.001.0001/acref-9780199891580-e-3994?rskey=s0rtth&result=3843Google Scholar
Thomas, C. L. I. (1994). Global Alert for All: Jesus Is Coming Soon. https://groups.google.com/g/sci.stat.edu/c/q1Ng7bvtmOg/m/CawblLbmsIwJ?pli=1Google Scholar
Thorne, J., & Vlachos, A. (2018). Automated Fact Checking: Task Formulations, Methods and Future Directions. Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Computational Linguistics, 3346–3359. https://aclanthology.org/C18-1283Google Scholar
Timberg, C., & Romm, T. (2018, December 17). New Report on Russian Disinformation, Prepared for the Senate, Shows the Operation’s Scale and Sweep. Washington Post.Google Scholar
Todd, C., & O’Brien, K. J. (2016). Teaching Anthropogenic Climate Change Through Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Helping Students Think Critically about Science and Ethics in Dialogue. Journal of Geoscience Education, 64(1), 52–59. https://doi.org/10.5408/12-331.1Google Scholar
Tolz, V., & Teper, Y. (2018). Broadcasting Agitainment: A New Media Strategy of Putin’s Third Residency. Post-Soviet Affairs, 34(4), 213–227. https://doi.org/10.1080/1060586X.2018.1459023Google Scholar
Tomlinson, N., & Redwood, S. (2013). Health Beliefs about Pre-school Immunisation: An Exploration of Views of Somali Women Resident in the UK. Diversity and Equality in Health and Care, 10(2), 101–113.Google Scholar
Törnberg, P. (2018). Echo Chambers and Viral Misinformation: Modeling Fake News as Complex Contagion. PLOS ONE, 13(9), e0203958. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203958Google Scholar
Traberg, C. S., Harjani, T., Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2023). The Socio-cognitive Factors That Underpin Misinformation Susceptibility. Under Review.Google Scholar
Traberg, C. S., Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2022). Psychological Inoculation against Misinformation: Current Evidence and Future Directions. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 700(1), 136–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027162221087936Google Scholar
Traberg, C. S., & van der Linden, S. (2022). Birds of a Feather Are Persuaded Together: Perceived Source Credibility Mediates the Effect of Political Bias on Misinformation Susceptibility. Personality and Individual Differences, 185(111269). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111269Google Scholar
Tully, M., Vraga, E. K., & Bode, L. (2020). Designing and Testing News Literacy Messages for Social Media. Mass Communication and Society, 23(1), 22–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2019.1604970Google Scholar
UK Government. (2022, December 16). A Guide to the Online Safety Bill. www.gov.uk/guidance/a-guide-to-the-online-safety-billGoogle Scholar
UK Parliament. (2021, December 14). No Longer the Land of the Lawless: Joint Committee Reports. Committees.Parliament.Uk. https://committees.parliament.uk/committee/534/draft-online-safety-bill-joint-committee/news/159784/no-longer-the-land-of-the-lawless-joint-committee-reports/Google Scholar
UK Parliament. (2023, May 10). Online Safety Bill. Bills.Parliament.UK. https://bills.parliament.uk/bills/3137Google Scholar
UNESCO. (2021). Media and Information Literate Citizens: Think Critically, Click Wisely! https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000377068Google Scholar
University of Cambridge. (2019). ‘Trickster God’ Used Fake News in Babylonian Noah Story. www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/trickster-god-used-fake-news-in-babylonian-noah-storyGoogle Scholar
U.S. Department of State. (2023, May 1). Disarming Disinformation: Our Shared Responsibility. www.state.gov/disarming-disinformation/Google Scholar
Vahedi, Z., Sibalis, A., & Sutherland, J. E. (2018). Are Media Literacy Interventions Effective at Changing Attitudes and Intentions Towards Risky Health Behaviors in Adolescents? A Meta-analytic Review. Journal of Adolescence, 67, 140–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.06.007Google Scholar
Van Bavel, J. J., Harris, E. A., Pärnamets, P., Rathje, S., Doell, K. C., & Tucker, J. A. (2021). Political Psychology in the Digital (mis)Information age: A Model of News Belief and Sharing. Social Issues and Policy Review, 15(1), 84–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12077Google Scholar
Van Bavel, J. J., & Pereira, A. (2018). The Partisan Brain: An Identity-Based Model of Political Belief. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 22(3), 213–224. https://doi.org/j.tics.2018.01.004Google Scholar
van der Linden, S. (2022). Misinformation: Susceptibility, Spread, and Interventions to Immunize the Public. Nature Medicine, 28(3), 460–467. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-022-01713-6Google Scholar
Van der Linden, S. (2023). Foolproof: Why Misinformation Infects Our Minds and How to Build Immunity. W. W. Norton & Company.Google Scholar
van der Linden, S., Leiserowitz, A., Rosenthal, S., & Maibach, E. (2017). Inoculating the Public against Misinformation about Climate Change. Global Challenges, 1(2), 1600008. https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.201600008Google Scholar
van der Linden, S., Maibach, E., Cook, J., Leiserowitz, A., & Lewandowsky, S. (2017). Inoculating against Misinformation. Science, 358(6367), 1141–1142. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aar4533Google Scholar
van der Linden, S., Panagopoulos, C., Azevedo, F., & Jost, J. T. (2020). The Paranoid Style in American Politics Revisited: Evidence of an Ideological Asymmetry in Conspiratorial Thinking. Political Psychology, 42(1), 23–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12681Google Scholar
van der Linden, S., & Roozenbeek, J. (2020). Psychological Inoculation against Fake News. In Greifeneder, R., Jaffé, M., Newman, E., & Schwarz, N. (Eds.), The Psychology of Fake News: Accepting, Sharing, and Correcting Misinformation (pp. 147–170). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429295379-11Google Scholar
van der Meer, T. G. L. A., Hameleers, M., & Ohme, J. (2023). Can Fighting Misinformation Have a Negative Spillover Effect? How Warnings for the Threat of Misinformation Can Decrease General News Credibility. Journalism Studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2023.2187652Google Scholar
Van Niekerk, B. (2015). Information Warfare in the 2013–2014 Ukraine crisis. In Cybersecurity Policies and Strategies for Cyberwarfare Prevention. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-4666-8456-0.ch012Google Scholar
van Prooijen, J.-W., Ligthart, J., Rosema, S., & Xu, Y. (2022). The Entertainment Value of Conspiracy Theories. British Journal of Psychology, 113, 25–48. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12522Google Scholar
Varol, O., Ferrara, E., Davis, C. A., Menczer, F., & Flammini, A. (2017). Online Human-Bot Interactions: Detection, Estimation, and Characterization. Proceedings of the Eleventh International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (ICWSM 2017), abs/1703.0.Google Scholar
Vellani, V., Zheng, S., Ercelik, D., & Sharot, T. (2023). The Illusory Truth effect Leads to the Spread of Misinformation. Cognition, 236, 105421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105421Google Scholar
Voigtländer, N., & Voth, H.-J. (2015). Nazi Indoctrination and Anti-Semitic Beliefs in Germany. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(26), 7931–7936. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1414822112Google Scholar
Volkov, D., & Kolesnikov, A. (2022). My Country, Right or Wrong: Russian Public Opinion on Ukraine.Google Scholar
Vosoughi, S., Roy, D., & Aral, S. (2018). The Spread of True and False News online. Science, 359(6380), 1146–1151. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap9559Google Scholar
Vraga, E. K., & Bode, L. (2017). Using Expert Sources to Correct Health Misinformation in Social Media. Science Communication, 39(5), 621–645. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547017731776Google Scholar
Vraga, E. K., & Bode, L. (2020). Defining Misinformation and Understanding its Bounded Nature: Using Expertise and Evidence for Describing Misinformation. Political Communication, 37(1), 136–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2020.1716500Google Scholar
Vraga, E. K., Kim, S. C., & Cook, J. (2019). Testing Logic-based and Humor-based Corrections for Science, Health, and Political Misinformation on Social Media. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 63(3), 393–414. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2019.1653102Google Scholar
Vuorre, M., Orben, A., & Przybylski, A. K. (2021). There Is No Evidence That Associations Between Adolescents’ Digital Technology Engagement and Mental Health Problems Have Increased. Clinical Psychological Science, 9(5), 823–835. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702621994549Google Scholar
Wagner, M. (2021). Affective Polarization in Multiparty Systems. Electoral Studies, 69, 102199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2020.102199Google Scholar
Walter, N., Cohen, J., Holbert, R. L., & Morag, Y. (2020). Fact-Checking: A Meta-Analysis of What Works and for Whom. Political Communication, 37(3), 350–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2019.1668894Google Scholar
Walter, N., & Murphy, S. T. (2018). How to Unring the Bell: A Meta-analytic Approach to Correction of Misinformation. Communication Monographs, 85(3), 423–441. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2018.1467564Google Scholar
Walter, N., & Tukachinsky, R. (2020). A Meta-analytic Examination of the Continued Influence of Misinformation in the Face of Correction: How Powerful Is It, Why Does It Happen, and How to Stop It? Communication Research, 47(2), 155–177. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650219854600Google Scholar
Wardle, C., & Derakhshan, H. (2017). Information Disorder: Toward an Interdisciplinary Framework for Research and Policymaking. https://rm.coe.int/information-disorder-toward-an-interdisciplinary-framework-for-researc/168076277cGoogle Scholar
Wasserman, I. M. (1998). Media Rhetoric and Images of Lynching in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Michigan Sociological Review, 12, 68–94. www.jstor.org/stable/40969023Google Scholar
Whitehead, H. S., French, C. E., Caldwell, D. M., Letley, L., & Mounier-Jack, S. (2023). A Systematic Review of Communication Interventions for Countering Vaccine Misinformation. Vaccine, 41(5), 1018–1034. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.12.059Google Scholar
Whitfield, S. (2020). Why the ‘Protocols of the Elders of Zion’ Is Still Pushed by Anti-Semites More than a Century after Hoax First Circulated. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/why-the-protocols-of-the-elders-of-zion-is-still-pushed-by-anti-semites-more-than-a-century-after-hoax-first-circulated-145220Google Scholar
Williams, M. N., & Bond, C. M. C. (2020). A Preregistered Replication of “Inoculating the Public against Misinformation about Climate Change.” Journal of Environmental Psychology, 70, 101456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101456Google Scholar
Wilson, S. L., & Wiysonge, C. (2020). Social Media and Vaccine Hesitancy. BMJ Global Health, 5(e004206). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-004206Google Scholar
Wilton Park. (2017). #Fake News: Innocuous or Intolerable? MixCloud. www.mixcloud.com/wiltonpark/fake-news-innocuous-or-intolerable/Google Scholar
Wineburg, S., Breakstone, J., McGrew, S., Smith, M., & Ortega, T. (2022). Lateral Reading on the Open Internet: A District-wide Field Study in High School Government Classes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 114(5), 893–909. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000740Google Scholar
Wojcieszak, M., Casas, A., Yu, X., Nagler, J., & Tucker, J. A. (2022). Most Users Do Not Follow Political Elites on Twitter; Those Who Do Show Overwhelming Preferences for Ideological Congruity. Science Advances, 8(39). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abn9418Google Scholar
Wood, T., & Porter, E. (2019). The Elusive Backfire Effect: Mass Attitudes’ Steadfast Factual Adherence. Political Behavior, 41(1), 135–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9443-yGoogle Scholar
WorldPublicOpinion.org. (2008). International Poll: No Consensus On Who Was Behind 9/11. https://worldpublicopinion.net/international-poll-no-consensus-on-who-was-behind-911/Google Scholar
Worobey, M., Levy, J. I., Serrano, L. M., Crits-Christoph, A., Pekar, J. E., Goldstein, S. A., Rasmussen, A. L., Kraemer, M. U. G., Newman, C., Koopmans, M. P. G., Suchard, M. A., Wertheim, J. O., Lemey, P., Robertson, D. L., Garry, R. F., Holmes, E. C., Rambaut, A., & Andersen, K. G. (2022). The Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market in Wuhan Was the Early Epicenter of the COVID-19 Pandemic. Science, 377(6609), 951–959. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abp8715Google Scholar
Yablokov, I. (2015). Conspiracy Theories as a Russian Public Diplomacy Tool: The Case of Russia Today (RT). Politics, 35(3–4), 301–315. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9256.12097Google Scholar
Young, Z. (2018, July 4). French Parliament Passes Law against “Fake News.” Politico. www.politico.eu/article/french-parliament-passes-law-against-fake-news/Google Scholar
Zarocostas, J. (2020). How to Fight an Infodemic. The Lancet, 395(10225), 676. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30461-XGoogle Scholar
Zerback, T., Töpfl, F., & Knöpfle, M. (2021). The Disconcerting Potential of online Disinformation: Persuasive Effects of Astroturfing Comments and Three Strategies for Inoculation against Them. New Media & Society, 23(5), 1080–1093. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820908530Google Scholar
Zielinski, S. (2015). The Great Moon Hoax Was Simply a Sign of Its Time. Smithsonian Magazine. www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/great-moon-hoax-was-simply-sign-its-time-180955761/Google Scholar
Ziemer, C.-T., & Rothmund, T. (2022). Psychological Underpinnings of Disinformation Countermeasures: A Systematic Scoping Review. PsyArxiv Preprints. doi: 10.31234/osf.io/scq5vGoogle Scholar
Zollo, F., Bessi, A., Del Vicario, M., Scala, A., Caldarelli, G., Shekhtman, L., Havlin, S., & Quattrociocchi, W. (2017). Debunking in a World of Tribes. PLOS ONE, 12(7), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181821Google Scholar
Zurth, P. (2021). The German NetzDG as Role Model or Cautionary Tale? Implications for the Debate on Social Media Liability: Implications for the Debate on Social Media Liability. Fordham Intellectual Property, Media and Entertainment Law Journal, 31(4). https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/iplj/vol31/iss4/4Google Scholar