Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-v2bm5 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-10T19:52:30.888Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

6 - Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 January 2025

By
Carmen P. McLean  and
Eve A. Rosenfeld
Edited by
Stephen Hupp  and
David F. Tolin
Stephen Hupp
Affiliation:
Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville
David F. Tolin
Affiliation:
Institute of Living
Get access

Summary

Clinical practice guidelines identify several efficacious treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder, including prolonged exposure therapy, cognitive processing therapy, and trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy. Credible components of treatment include psychoeducation, homework, exposure therapy, and cognitive techniques. A sidebar discusses how different categories of traumatic events can influence treatment choices. Another sidebar reviews the controversy over eye movement desensitization and reprocessing.

Keywords

posttraumatic stress disorderprolonged exposure therapycognitive processing therapytrauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapypsychoeducationexposure therapycognitive techniqueseye movement desensitization and reprocessingEMDRscience-based therapy
Type
Chapter
Information
Science-Based Therapy
Raising the Bar for Empirically Supported Treatments
 , pp. 81 - 104
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2025

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Useful Resources

CPT Web https://cpt2.musc.edu

Online training for CPT.

International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (ISTSS) https://istss.org/home

ISTSS is a professional association that offers information and resources related to traumatic stress and its management. The website includes information about PTSD assessment and treatment in adults and children, as well as provider training, treatment guidelines, and provider self-care.

National Center for PTSD (NCPTSD) www.ptsd.va.gov

The NCPTSD is a research and educational center of excellence on PTSD. The website offers information about PTSD assessment and PTSD treatments, including guidance on shared decision-making, and the PTSD Consultation Program, which provides clinical didactics and free expert consultation to any provider working with veterans with PTSD.

National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN) www.nctsnet.org

The NCTSN provides clinical services, education, and training to address traumatic stress in children and their families. It includes information about treatment approaches, psychological first aid, and trauma-informed care.

PE Web http://pe.musc.edu

The Medical University of South Carolina is one of several institutions that offers training in evidence-based treatment for PTSD, including online training for prolonged exposure therapy.

References

Acierno, R., Knapp, R., Tuerk, P., et al. (2017). A non-inferiority trial of prolonged exposure for posttraumatic stress disorder: In person versus home-based telehealth. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 89, 57–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amir, N., Stafford, J., Freshman, M. S., & Foa, E. B. (1998). Relationship between trauma narratives and trauma pathology. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 385–392. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024415523495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asmundson, G. J. G., Thorisdottir, A. S., Roden-Foreman, J. W., et al. (2019). A meta-analytic review of cognitive processing therapy for adults with posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 48(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2018.1522371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Back, S. E., Killeen, T., Badour, C. L., et al. (2019). Concurrent treatment of substance use disorders and PTSD using prolonged exposure: A randomized clinical trial in military veterans. Addictive Behaviors, 90, 369–377.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, A. T, Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Benham, E. (1995). Coping strategies: A psychoeducational approach to post-traumatic symptomatology. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 33(6), 30–35. https://doi.org/10.3928/0279-3695-19950601-07.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bicanic, I., de Jongh, A., & Ten Broeke, E. (2015). Stabilisatie in traumabehandeling bij complexe PTSS: Noodzaak of mythe? [Stabilisation in trauma treatment: Necessity or myth?]. Tijdschrift Voor Psychiatrie, 57(5), 332–339.Google Scholar
Birkeland, M. S., Skar, A. M. S., & Jensen, T. K. (2021). Do different traumatic events invoke different kinds of post-traumatic stress symptoms? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(sup1), 1866399. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1866399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blanchard, E. B., Hickling, E. J., Devineni, T., et al. (2003). A controlled evaluation of cognitive behaviorial therapy for posttraumatic stress in motor vehicle accident survivors. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(1), 79–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00131-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonanno, G. A., Romero, S. A., & Klein, S. I. (2015). The temporal elements of psychological resilience: An integrative framework for the study of individuals, families, and communities. Psychological Inquiry, 26(2), 139–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2015.992677.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bosch, J., Mackintosh, M.-A., Wells, S. Y., et al. (2020). PTSD treatment response and quality of life in women with childhood trauma histories. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 12(1), 55–63. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000468.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boudewyns, P. A., & Hyer, L. (1990). Physiological response to combat memories and preliminary treatment outcome in Vietnam veteran PTSD patients treated with direct therapeutic exposure. Behavior Therapy, 21(1), 63–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bouton, M. E. (1993). Context, time, and memory retrieval in the interference paradigms of Pavlovian learning. Psychological Bulletin, 114(1), 80–99. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.114.1.80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bovin, M. J., Marx, B. P., Weathers, F. W., et al. (2016). Psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist for diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders – fifth edition (PCL-5) in veterans. Psychological assessment, 28(11), 1379.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradley, R., Greene, J., Russ, E., Dutra, L., & Westen, D. (2005). A multidimensional meta-analysis of psychotherapy for PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(2), 214–227. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.2.214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooks, S. K., Weston, D., Wessely, S., & Greenberg, N. (2021). Effectiveness and acceptability of brief psychoeducational interventions after potentially traumatic events: A systematic review. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), 1923110. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.1923110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brouzos, A., Vatkali, E., Mavridis, D., Vassilopoulos, S. P., & Baourda, V. C. (2022). Psychoeducation for adults with post-traumatic stress symptomatology: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 52(2), 155–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-021-09526-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, L. A., Zandberg, L. J., & Foa, E. B. (2019). Mechanisms of change in prolonged exposure therapy for PTSD: Implications for clinical practice. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 29(1), 6–14. https://doi.org/10.1037/int0000109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryant, R. A. (2003). Early predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 53(9), 789–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryant, R. A., & Guthrie, R. M. (2007). Maladaptive self-appraisals before trauma exposure predict posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(5), 812. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.75.5.812.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryant, R. A., Moulds, M. L., Guthrie, R. M., Dang, S. T., & Nixon, R. D. (2003). Imaginal exposure alone and imaginal exposure with cognitive restructuring in treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(4), 706-712. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.71.4.706CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryant, R. A., Moulds, M. L., Guthrie, R. M., et al. (2008). A randomized controlled trial of exposure therapy and cognitive restructuring for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 695.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cahill, S. P., Carrigan, M. H., & Frueh, B. C. (1999). Does EMDR work? And if so, why? A critical review of controlled outcome and dismantling research. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 13(1), 5–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6185(98)00039-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, J. A., & Mannarino, A. P. (2017). Evidence based intervention: Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy for children and families. In Teti, D. M. (Ed.), Parenting and family processes in child maltreatment and intervention (pp. 91–105). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-40920-7_6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, A. A., Kline, A. C., Graham, B., et al. (2017). Homework “dose,” type, and helpfulness as predictors of clinical outcomes in prolonged exposure for PTSD. Behavior Therapy, 48(2), 182–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2016.02.013.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craske, M. G., Kircanski, K., Zelikowsky, M., et al. (2008). Optimizing inhibitory learning during exposure therapy. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46(1), 5–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.10.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cuijpers, P., Veen, S. C. Van, Sijbrandij, M., Yoder, W., & Cristea, I. A. (2020). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for mental health problems: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 49(3), 165–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2019.1703801.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, C. M., Kazantzis, N., & Kendall, P. C. (2014). Facilitating homework and generalization of skills to the real world. In Sburlati, E. S., Lyneham, H. J., Schniering, C. A., & Rappe, R. M. (Eds.), Evidence-based CBT for anxiety and depression in children and adolescents (pp. 141–155). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118500576.ch11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cusack, K., Jonas, D. E., Forneris, C. A., et al. (2016). Psychological treatments for adults with posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 43, 128–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.10.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davidson, P. R., & Parker, K. C. H. (2001). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): A meta-analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69(2), 305–316. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.69.2.305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Jongh, A., Resick, P. A., Zoellner, L. A., et al. (2016). Critical analysis of the current treatment guidelines for complex PTSD in adults. Depression and Anxiety, 33(5), 359–369. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.2246.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Department of Veterans Affairs and Department of Defense (2017). VA/DoD clinical practice guideline for the management of posttraumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder. Department of Veterans Affairs and Department of Defense.Google Scholar
Detweiler, J. B., & Whisman, M. A. (1999). The role of homework assignments in cognitive therapy for depression: Potential methods for enhancing adherence. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 6(3), 267–282. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.6.3.267.Google Scholar
Devilly, G. J., & Foa, E. B. (2001). The investigation of exposure and cognitive therapy: Comment on Tarrier et al. (1999). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 114–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dewar, M., Paradis, A., & Fortin, C. A. (2020). Identifying trajectories and predictors of response to psychotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: A systematic review of literature. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 65(2), 71–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/0706743719875602.Google ScholarPubMed
Donker, T., Griffiths, K. M., Cuijpers, P., & Christensen, H. (2009). Psychoeducation for depression, anxiety and psychological distress: A meta-analysis. BMC Medicine, 7(1), 79. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-7-79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38(4), 319–345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Hackmann, A., et al. (2003). A randomized controlled trial of cognitive therapy, a self-help booklet, and repeated assessments as early interventions for posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 1024–1032.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fehm, L., & Mrose, J. (2008). Patients’ perspective on homework assignments in cognitive-behavioural therapy. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 15(5), 320–328. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
First, M. B., Williams, J. B., Karg, R. S., & Spitzer, R. L. (2016). User’s guide for the SCID-5-CV structured clinical interview for DSM-5® disorders: Clinical version. American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.Google Scholar
Fisher, J. (1999). The work of stabilization in trauma treatment. Trauma Center Lecture Series, 1–13.Google Scholar
Foa, E. B., & Kozak, M. J. (1985). Treatment of Anxiety Disorders: Implications for Psychopathology. In Tuma, H. & Maser, J. (Eds.), Anxiety and the anxiety disorders. Routledge.Google Scholar
Foa, E. B., Bredemeier, K., Acierno, R., et al. (2022). The efficacy of 90-min versus 60-min sessions of prolonged exposure for PTSD: A randomized controlled trial in active-duty military personnel. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 90(6), 503–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000739.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foa, E. B., Chrestman, K. R., & Gilboa-Schechtman, E. (2008). Prolonged exposure therapy for adolescents with PTSD emotional processing of traumatic experiences, therapist guide. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foa, E. B., Dancu, C. V., Hembree, E. A., et al. (1999). A comparison of exposure therapy, stress inoculation training, and their combination for reducing posttraumatic stress disorder in female assault victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 194–200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foa, E. B., Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Tolin, D. F., & Orsillo, S. M. (1999). The posttraumatic cognitions inventory (PTCI): Development and validation. Psychological Assessment, 11, 303–314. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.11.3.303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foa, E. B., Hembree, E. A., Cahill, S. P., et al. (2005). Randomized trial of prolonged exposure for posttraumatic stress disorder with and without cognitive restructuring: Outcome at academic and community clinics. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 953–964.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foa, E. B., Hembree, E. A., Rothbaum, B. O., & Rauch, S. A. M. (2019). Prolonged exposure therapy for PTSD: Emotional processing of traumatic experiences: Therapist guide, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/med-psych/9780190926939.001.0001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foa, E. B., McLean, C. P., Zang, Y., et al. (2016). Psychometric properties of the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale for DSM–5 (PDS–5). Psychological assessment, 28(10), 1166–1171. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foa, E. B., McLean, C. P., Zang, Y., et al. (2018). Effect of prolonged exposure therapy delivered over 2 weeks vs 8 weeks vs present-centered therapy on PTSD symptom severity in military personnel: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 319, 354–364.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foa, E. B., Yusko, D. A., Mclean, C. P., et al. (2013). Concurrent naltrexone and prolonged exposure therapy for patients with comorbid alcohol dependence and PTSD. Journal of the American Medical Association, 310, 488–495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ford, J. D., Grasso, D. J., Greene, C. A., Slivinsky, M., & DeViva, J. C. (2018). Randomized clinical trial pilot study of prolonged exposure versus present centered affect regulation therapy for PTSD and anger problems with male military combat veterans. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 25, 641–649.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forman-Hoffman, V., Middleton, J. C., Feltner, C., et al. (2018). Psychological and pharmacological treatments for adults with posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review update. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US), Rockville (MD).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galovski, T. E., Harik, J. M., Blain, L. M., et al. (2016). Identifying patterns and predictors of PTSD and depressive symptom change during cognitive processing therapy. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 40(5), 617–626. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-016-9770-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goetter, E. M., Blackburn, A. M., Stasko, C., et al. (2020). Comparative effectiveness of prolonged exposure and cognitive processing therapy for military service members in an intensive treatment program. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 13(6), 632. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000956.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gould, M., Greenberg, N., & Hetherton, J. (2007). Stigma and the military: Evaluation of a PTSD psychoeducational program. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20(4), 505–515. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gray, M. J., Elhai, J. D., & Frueh, B. C. (2004). Enhancing patient satisfaction and increasing treatment compliance: Patient education as a fundamental component of PTSD treatment. Psychiatric Quarterly, 75(4), 321–332. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:PSAQ.0000043508.52428.6e.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guina, J., & Merrill, B. (2018). Benzodiazepines I: Upping the care on downers: the evidence of risks, benefits and alternatives. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 7(2), 17. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm7020017.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guina, J., Rossetter, S. R., DeRhodes, B. J., Nahhas, R. W., & Welton, R. S. (2015). Benzodiazepines for PTSD: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Practice®, 21(4), 281–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hagenaars, M. A., van Minnen, A., & Hoogduin, K. A. (2010). The impact of dissociation and depression on the efficacy of prolonged exposure treatment for PTSD. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(1), 19–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamblen, J. L., Norman, S. B., Sonis, J. H., et al. (2019). A guide to guidelines for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in adults: An update. Psychotherapy, 56(3), 359–373. https://doi.org/10.1037/pst0000231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harned, M. S., Korslund, K. E., & Linehan, M. M. (2014). A pilot randomized controlled trial of dialectical behavior therapy with and without the dialectical behavior therapy prolonged exposure protocol for suicidal and self-injuring women with borderline personality disorder and PTSD. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 55, 7–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harned, M. S., Korslund, K. E., Foa, E. B., & Linehan, M. M. (2012). Treating PTSD in suicidal and self-injuring women with borderline personality disorder: Development and preliminary evaluation of a dialectical behavior therapy prolonged exposure protocol. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 50(6), 381–386.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harvey, A. G., Bryant, R. A., & Rapee, R. M. (1996). Preconscious processing of threat in posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 20, 613–623. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02227964.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Held, P., Smith, D. L., Bagley, J. M., et al. (2021). Treatment response trajectories in a three-week CPT-Based intensive treatment for veterans with PTSD. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 141, 226–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.07.004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hundt, N. E., Barrera, T. L., Arney, J., & Stanley, M. A. (2017). “It’s worth it in the end”: Veterans’ experiences in prolonged exposure and cognitive processing therapy. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 24(1), 50–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2016.02.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (2018). ISTSS PTSD prevention and treatment guidelines: Methodology and recommendations. www.istss.org/getattachment/Treating-Trauma/New-ISTSS-Prevention-and-TreatmentGuidelines/ISTSS_PreventionTreatmentGuidelines_FNL.pdf.aspx.Google Scholar
Janoff-Bulman, R. (1985). The aftermath of victimization: Rebuilding shattered assumptions. In Figley, C. R. (Ed.), Trauma and its wake: The study and treatment of post-traumatic Stress Disorder (pp. 15–35). Brunner/Mazel.Google Scholar
Janoff-Bulman, R. (1989). Assumptive worlds and the stress of traumatic events: Applications of the schema construct. Social Cognition, 7(2), 113–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jeffreys, M. D., Reinfeld, C., Nair, P. V., et al. (2014). Evaluating treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with cognitive processing therapy and prolonged exposure therapy in a VHA specialty clinic. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 28(1), 108–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.04.010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jeffries, F. W., & Davis, P. (2013). What is the role of eye movements in eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)? A review. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 41(3), 290–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kachadourian, L. K., Harpaz-Rotem, I., Tsai, J., Southwick, S. M., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2019). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, functioning, and suicidal ideation in US military veterans: A symptomics approach. The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders, 21(2), 22914. https://doi.org/10.4088/PCC.18m02402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karatzias, T., Murphy, P., Cloitre, M., et al. (2019). Psychological interventions for ICD-11 complex PTSD symptoms: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 49(11), 1761–1775. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291719000436.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kazantzis, N., & Deane, F. P. (1999). Psychologists’ use of homework assignments in clinical practice. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 30(6), 581–585. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.30.6.581.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kazantzis, N., Arntz, A. R., Borkovec, T., Holmes, E. A., & Wade, T. (2010). Unresolved issues regarding homework assignments in cognitive and behavioural therapies: An expert panel discussion at AACBT. Behaviour Change, 27(3), 119–129. https://doi.org/10.1375/bech.27.3.119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kazantzis, N., Deane, F. P., & Ronan, K. R. (2000). Homework assignments in cognitive and behavioral therapy: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 7(2), 189–202. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.7.2.189.Google Scholar
Kazantzis, N., Whittington, C., Zelencich, L., et al. (2016). Quantity and quality of homework compliance: A meta-analysis of relations with outcome in cognitive behavior therapy. Behavior Therapy, 47(5), 755–772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2016.05.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keane, T. M., Fairbank, J. A., Caddell, J. M., & Zimering, R. T. (1989). Implosive (flooding) therapy reduces symptoms of PTSD in Vietnam combat veterans. Behavior Therapy, 20(2), 245–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(89)80072-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keefe, J. R., Wiltsey Stirman, S., Cohen, Z. D., et al. (2018). In rape trauma PTSD, patient characteristics indicate which trauma-focused treatment they are most likely to complete. Depression and Anxiety, 35(4), 330–338. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22731.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kehle-Forbes, S. M., Polusny, M. A., MacDonald, R., et al. (2013). A systematic review of the efficacy of adding nonexposure components to exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 5(4), 317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelley, L. P., Weathers, F. W., McDevitt-Murphy, M. E., Eakin, D. E., & Flood, A. M. (2009). A comparison of PTSD symptom patterns in three types of civilian trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22(3), 227–235. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20406.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., et al. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 593–602.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khan, A. J., Holder, N., Li, Y., et al. (2020). How do gender and military sexual trauma impact PTSD symptoms in cognitive processing therapy and prolonged exposure? Journal of Psychiatric Research, 130, 89–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.06.025.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lang, P. J. (1977). Imagery in therapy: An information processing analysis of fear. Behavior Therapy, 8(5), 862–886. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(77)80157-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LeDoux, J. E. (2014). Coming to terms with fear. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(8), 2871–2878.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, C. W., & Cuijpers, P. (2013). A meta-analysis of the contribution of eye movements in processing emotional memories. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 44(2), 231–239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Starling, E., & Bisson, J. I. (2020). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1729633. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1729633.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linehan, M. M., Comtois, K. A., Murray, A. M., et al. (2006). Two-year randomized controlled trial and follow-up of dialectical behavior therapy vs therapy by experts for suicidal behaviors and borderline personality disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63(7), 757–766.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maercker, A. (2021). Development of the new CPTSD diagnosis for ICD-11. Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation, 8(1), 1–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maguen, S., Madden, E., Neylan, T. C., et al. (2014). Timing of mental health treatment and PTSD symptom improvement among Iraq and Afghanistan veterans. Psychiatric Services, 65(12), 1414–1419. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201300453.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Markowitz, J. C., Neria, Y., Lovell, K., Van Meter, P. E., & Petkova, E. (2017). History of sexual trauma moderates psychotherapy outcome for posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 34(8), 692–700. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22619.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mausbach, B. T., Moore, R., Roesch, S., Cardenas, V., & Patterson, T. L. (2010). The relationship between homework compliance and therapy outcomes: An updated meta-analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 34(5), 429–438. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-010-9297-z.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCann, I. L., Sakheim, D. K., & Abrahamson, D. J. (1988). Trauma and victimization: A model of psychological adaptation. The Counseling Psychologist, 16(4), 531–594.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLean, C. P., Asnaani, A., Litz, B. T., & Hofmann, S. G. (2011). Gender differences in anxiety disorders: Prevalence, course of illness, comorbidity and burden of illness. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45(8), 1027–1035. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.03.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLean, C. P., Foa, E. B., Dondanville, K. A., et al. (2021). The effects of web-prolonged exposure among military personnel and veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 13(6), 621–361. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000978.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLean, C. P., Levy, H. C., Miller, M. L., & Tolin, D. F. (2022). Exposure therapy for PTSD: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 91, 102115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLean, C. P., Zang, Y., Gallagher, T., et al. (2019). Trauma-related cognitions and cognitive emotion regulation as mediators of PTSD change among treatment-seeking active-duty military personnel with PTSD. Behavior Therapy, 50(6), 1053–1062.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mowrer, O. H. (1960). Two-factor learning theory: Versions one and two. In Learning theory and behavior (pp. 63–91). John Wiley & Sons Inc. https://doi.org/10.1037/10802-003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Institute for Health and Clinical Practice (2018). Guideline for post-traumatic stress disorder. National Institute for Health and Clinical Practice.Google Scholar
Nixon, R. D. V., Sterk, J., & Pearce, A. (2012). A randomized trial of cognitive behaviour therapy and cognitive therapy for children with posttraumatic stress disorder following single-incident trauma. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(3), 327–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nixon, R. D. V., Sterk, J., Pearce, A., & Weber, N. (2017). A randomized trial of cognitive behavior therapy and cognitive therapy for children with posttraumatic stress disorder following single-incident trauma: Predictors and outcome at 1-year follow-up. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 9(4), 471–478. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perrin, S., Leigh, E., Smith, P., et al. (2017). Cognitive therapy for PTSD in children and adolescents. In Landolt, M. A., Cloitre, M., & Schnyder, U. (Eds.), Evidence-based treatments for trauma related disorders in children and adolescents (pp. 187–207). Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phoenix Australia Centre for Posttraumatic Mental Health (2013). Australian guidelines for the treatment of acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. Phoenix Australia Centre for Posttraumatic Mental Health.Google Scholar
Phoenix, B. J. (2007). Psychoeducation for survivors of trauma. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 43(3), 123–131. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6163.2007.00121.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pitman, R. K., Orr, S. P., Altman, B., et al. (1996). Emotional processing during eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy of Vietnam veterans with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 37(6), 419–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-440X(96)90025-5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Popiel, A., Zawadzki, B., Pragłowska, E., & Teichman, Y. (2015). Prolonged exposure, paroxetine and the combination in the treatment of PTSD following a motor vehicle accident: A randomized clinical trial – The “TRAKT” study. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 48, 17–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ragsdale, K. A., & Voss Horrell, S. C. (2016). Effectiveness of prolonged exposure and cognitive processing therapy for US veterans with a history of traumatic brain injury. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 29(5), 474–477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rauch, S. A., Kim, H. M., Powell, C., et al. (2019). Efficacy of prolonged exposure therapy, sertraline hydrochloride, and their combination among combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. JAMA Psychiatry, 76, 117–126. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.3412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rauch, S. A., King, A. P., Abelson, J., et al. (2015). Biological and symptom changes in posttraumatic stress disorder treatment: A randomized clinical trial. Depression and Anxiety, 32, 204–212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rauch, S. A., Yasinski, C. W., Post, L. M., et al. (2021). An intensive outpatient program with prolonged exposure for veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: Retention, predictors, and patterns of change. Psychological Services, 18(4), 606–618. https://doi.org/10.1037/ser0000422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reger, G. M., McClure, M. L., Ruskin, D., Carter, S. P., & Reger, M. A. (2019). Integrating predictive modeling into mental health care: An example in suicide prevention. Psychiatric Services, 70(1), 71–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Resick, P. A., & Schnicke, M. (1993). Cognitive processing therapy for rape victims: A treatment manual. Sage.Google Scholar
Resick, P. A., Galovski, T. E., Uhlmansiek, M. O., et al. (2008). A randomized clinical trial to dismantle components of cognitive processing therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in female victims of interpersonal violence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(2), 243–258. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.76.2.243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Resick, P. A., Monson, C. M., & Chard, K. M. (2017). Cognitive processing therapy for PTSD: A comprehensive manual. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Roberts, N. P., Kitchiner, N. J., Kenardy, J., et al. (2019). Multiple session early psychological interventions for the prevention of post‐traumatic stress disorder. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (8). https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD006869.pub3.Google ScholarPubMed
Rosen, C. S., Greenbaum, M. A., Schnurr, P. P., et al. (2013). Do benzodiazepines reduce the effectiveness of exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder? The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 74(12), 1855.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosen, G. M., & Davison, G. C. (2003). Psychology should list empirically supported principles of change (ESPs) and not credential trademarked therapies or other treatment packages. Behavior Modification, 27(3), 300–312. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445503027003003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosen, G. M., Otgaar, H., & Merckelbach, H. (2023). Trauma. In Hupp, S. & Santa Maria, C. L. (Eds.), Pseudoscience in therapy: A skeptical field guide (pp. 69–93). Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruf, M., Schauer, M., Neuner, F., et al. (2010). Narrative exposure therapy for 7‐ to 16‐year‐olds: A randomized controlled trial with traumatized refugee children. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(4), 437–445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rupp, C., Doebler, P., Ehring, T., & Vossbeck-Elsebusch, A. N. (2017). Emotional processing theory put to test: A meta-analysis on the association between process and outcome measures in exposure therapy. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 24(3), 697–711. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2039.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutt, B. T., Oehlert, M. E., Krieshok, T. S., & Lichtenberg, J. W. (2018). Effectiveness of cognitive processing therapy and prolonged exposure in the Department of Veterans Affairs. Psychological Reports, 121(2), 282–302. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294117727746.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sack, M., Zehl, S., Otti, A., et al. (2016). A comparison of dual attention, eye movements, and exposure only during eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for posttraumatic stress disorder: Results from a randomized clinical trial. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 85(6), 357–365.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanderson, A., & Carpenter, R. (1992). Eye movement desensitization versus image confrontation: A single-session crossover study of 58 phobic subjects. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 23(4), 269–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7916(92)90049-O.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schauer, M., Neuner, F., & Elbert, T. (2011). Narrative exposure therapy: A short-term treatment for traumatic stress disorders. Hogrefe Publishing GmbH.Google Scholar
Scheeringa, M. S., Weems, C. F., Cohen, J. A., Amaya-Jackson, L., & Guthrie, D. (2011). Trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in three-through six year-old children: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(8), 853–860. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02354.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schubert, S., & Lee, C. W. (2009). Adult PTSD and its treatment with EMDR: A review of controversies, evidence, and theoretical knowledge. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 3(3), 117–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shapiro, F., & Maxfield, L. (2002). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): Information processing in the treatment of trauma. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(8), 933–946.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sloan, D. M., & Marx, B. P. (2019). Written exposure therapy for PTSD: A brief treatment approach for mental health professionals. American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Sloan, D. M., Feinstein, B. A., Gallagher, M. W., Beck, J. G., & Keane, T. M. (2011). Efficacy of group treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: A meta-analysis. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 5(2), 176–183. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026291.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sloan, D. M., Marx, B. P., Lee, D. J., & Resick, P. A. (2018). A brief exposure-based treatment vs cognitive processing therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized noninferiority clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 75, 233–239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, H. L., Summers, B. J., Dillon, K. H., & Cougle, J. R. (2016). Is worst-event trauma type related to PTSD symptom presentation and associated features? Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 38, 55–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.01.007.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sripada, R. K., Pfeiffer, P. N., Rampton, J., et al. (2017). Predictors of PTSD symptom change among outpatients in the US Department of Veterans Affairs Health Care System. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 30(1), 45–53. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22156.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stirman, S. W., Gutner, C. A., Suvak, M. K., et al. (2018). Homework completion, patient characteristics, and symptom change in cognitive processing therapy for PTSD. Behavior Therapy, 49(5), 741–755. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.12.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Straud, C. L., Siev, J., Messer, S., & Zalta, A. K. (2019). Examining military population and trauma type as moderators of treatment outcome for first-line psychotherapies for PTSD: A meta-analysis. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 67, 102133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2019.102133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tanielian, T. L., & Jaycox, L. (2008). Invisible wounds of war: Psychological and cognitive injuries, their consequences, and services to assist recovery. RAND.Google Scholar
Tanielian, T. L., Jaycox, L. H., Schell, T. L., et al. (2008). Invisible wounds of war: Summary and recommendations for addressing psychological and cognitive injuries. RAND.Google Scholar
Tiet, Q. Q., Leyva, Y. E., Blau, K., Turchik, J. A., & Rosen, C. S. (2015). Military sexual assault, gender, and PTSD treatment outcomes of US veterans. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(2), 92–101. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21992.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Minnen, A., Harned, M. S., Zoellner, L., & Mills, K. (2012). Examining potential contraindications for prolonged exposure therapy for PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 3(1), 18805.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Minnen, A., Hendriks, L., & Olff, M. (2010). When do trauma experts choose exposure therapy for PTSD patients? A controlled study of therapist and patient factors. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(4), 312–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2009.12.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wade, D., Varker, T., Kartal, D., et al. (2016). Gender difference in outcomes following trauma-focused interventions for posttraumatic stress disorder: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 8(3), 356–364. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watts, B. V., Schnurr, P. P., Mayo, L., et al. (2013). Meta-analysis of the efficacy of treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 74(6), 11710. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.12r08225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watts, B. V., Schnurr, P. P., Zayed, M., et al. (2015). A randomized controlled clinical trial of a patient decision aid for posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatric Services, 66(2), 149–154. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201400062.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weathers, F. W., Blake, D. D., Schnurr, P. P., et al. (2013a). The Life events checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5). Instrument available from the National Center for PTSD: www.ptsd.va.gov.Google Scholar
Weathers, F. W., Bovin, M. J., Lee, D. J., et al. (2018). The clinician-administered PTSD scale for DSM–5 (CAPS-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation in military veterans. Psychological Assessment, 30(3), 383.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Keane, T. M., et al. (2013b). The PTSD checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). Scale available from the National Center for PTSD: www.ptsd.va.gov.Google Scholar
Weiss, D. S., & Marmar, C. R. (1996). The Impact of Event Scale - Revised. In Wilson, J. & Keane, T. M. (Eds.), Assessing Psychological Trauma and PTSD (pp. 399–411). Guilford.Google Scholar
Weiss, D. S., & Marmar, C. R. (2004). Impact of event scale-revised (IES-R). Cross-Cultural Assessment of Psychological Trauma and PTSD, 219–238.Google Scholar
Wells, S. Y., Morland, L. A., Torres, E. M., et al. (2019). The development of a brief version of the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI-9). Assessment, 26(2), 193–208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whitworth, J. D. (2016). The role of psychoeducation in trauma recovery: Recommendations for content and delivery. Journal of Evidence-Informed Social Work, 13(5), 442–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/23761407.2016.1166852.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization. (2022). ICD-11: International classification of diseases (11th revision). https://icd.who.int/.Google Scholar
Zalta, A. K., Held, P., Smith, D. L., et al. (2018). Evaluating patterns and predictors of symptom change during a three-week intensive outpatient treatment for veterans with PTSD. BMC Psychiatry, 18, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1816-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zalta, A. K., Tirone, V., Orlowska, D., et al. (2021). Examining moderators of the relationship between social support and self-reported PTSD symptoms: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 147(1), 33–54. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×