Index

doi:10.1017/9781009025416.026

Index

Abi-Saab, G., 139, 152

Absence in CIL

generally, 62–63

acquiescence and, 72–73

assertion and, 71–72, 85

deductive reasoning and, 69–70, 71–72, 85

Grundnorm and, 63

improper ICJ treatment of, 73

inconsistency in ICJ treatment of, 73

inductive reasoning and, 69–71

Kosovo Advisory Opinion and (See Kosovo Advisory Opinion (ICJ 2010))

law-creating in inductive reasoning, 70

legal positivism and, 62–63

‘magic’ argumentative tricks, 74–75

‘modern’ deductive reasoning and, 71, 85

non liquet and, 63, 68, 71, 73, 74

‘open-system’ approach, need for, 84, 86

open versus closed system, 68–69, 84

persuasive argumentation and, 63, 73–75, 85

selectivity in inductive reasoning, 70

silence distinguished, 75–76

si loqui debuisset ac potuisset and, 72–73

subjectivity in inductive reasoning, 70

superficial rationality and, 85

teleological argumentation and, 74, 85

traditional deductive reasoning and, 71, 85

uti possideti juris and, 74

Abstractness, 62, 74, 415, 457

Accountability in CIL, 434–435

Acquiescence

absence in CIL and, 72–73

to misinterpretation of CIL, 59–60

Actus reus, 52–53

Ad absurdum, 360

Adams, Nathan, 372

‘Ad nauseam fallacy’, 343

Adoption, 197

Advisory Committee of Jurists, 354–355

Afghanistan

non-state armed groups (NSAGs) in, 317

Taliban, 317

African Union, 55–56

Agencies of change

generally, 193–194, 201–202

equity as, 196, 199–201

legal fiction as, 196, 197–199

legislation as, 196–197

Aggression, 106

Ago, Roberto, 139, 171

Agreement on Textiles (1995), 294

Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) (1985), 286, 293

Akehurst, Michael, 13–14, 377, 383

Algeria

corporal punishment and, 338

Universal Periodic Review Recommendations and, 338

Alland, D., 353, 358, 396–397

Allied Control Council Law No. 10, 270

Allott, Philip, 188, 400

Al-Qaeda, 309

Álvarez, Alejandro, 321

American Convention on Human Rights (1969), 337

Ammann, Odile, 491–492, 505

Analogic interpretation, 428–429

Apartheid, 221–223

Applicative construction, 401–404

Approximately plausible empowerment norms (AppPENs), 5, 26–28

Arajärvi, Noora, 343

Arbitration, 43, 243

de Aréchaga, Jimenez, 232

Arend, Anthony Clark, 313

Argentina, application of ICJ Statute Art. 38 in, 147, 148, 151

Argumenta ad ignorantiam, 75–77, 81

Argumenta e silentio, 75–76, 78, 80–81

Aristotle, 438

Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (ARSIWA)

attribution and, 97

ICJ and, 248, 250–251

necessity and, 96

success of, 176

WTO Appellate Body and, 282–285, 286, 287

Ascertainment of CIL. See Identification of CIL

Assertion

absence in CIL and, 71–72, 85

ICJ, assertion of existence of CIL in, 234

international courts and tribunals, assertion of CIL without demonstration, 240

in WTO Appellate Body, 287

‘Astigmatic pragmatists’, 6–8

Asylum case (ICJ 1950)

generally, 73, 85

interpretation of CIL in, 428–429

silence as objection, 73, 74–75

Attribution, 97–98, 109–110

Austin, John, 190

Australia

authoritative written documents, interpreting CIL norms in, 503

on domestic violence, 320

Austria

generally, 508–509

ambiguity regarding CIL in, 529

application of CIL in, 524–525, 527, 528–529

Bundes-Verfassungsgesetz (B-VG) (Constitution), 508–509, 524–527, 528

constitutional law outside constitution, 524–525

interstate treaties in, 525–527

treaties, domestic law and, 508

VCLT and, 527, 529

Verfassungsgerichtshof (VfGH) (Constitiutional Court), 527, 529

Aut dedere aut judicare, 165, 167

Autonomous interpretation of CIL, 493–499, 505

Bacon, Francis, 68

Baker, R., 198, 199–200

Barcelona Traction case (ICJ 1970)

generally, 445–446

community interests in, 223–224

diplomatic protection and, 223–224

enkapsis and, 224, 225

erga omnes obligations and, 225

general rules of CIL and, 440

interpretation of CIL in, 426, 427

Barthes, Roland, 438

‘Battlefield practice’, 12

‘Battle of the sexes’, 116, 118

Bedjaoui, Mohammed, 364

Belgium

autonomous interpretation of CIL in, 497–499

ICJ Statute Art. 38, application in, 148

state official immunity and, 497–499

Belief

negation versus, 79

richness of, 79–80

Benin

child marriage and, 342

Universal Periodic Review Recommendations and, 342

Bentham, J., 154, 159

Berlin Conference (1885), 223

Bianchi, Andrea, 57, 193

Bilateral investment treaties (BITs), 244–245

Billard, Julie, 330

Binding force of treaties, 121–122

von Bismarck, Otto, 509

Black’s Law Dictionary, 402, 403

‘Black swans’, 492

Bleckmann, Albert, 397, 411

‘Blindingness’, 434–435

Blutman, L., 375

‘Bootstrapping’, 435, 438

Bos, M., 400

Bossa, Solomy Balungi, 55

Botswana, Universal Periodic Review Recommendations and, 328

Botvinik, Mikhail, 357

Brazil, Universal Periodic Review Recommendations and, 328–329

Brie, Siegfried, 16–17

Brownlie, Ian, 441–442

Brunnée, Jutta, 341

Burial law, 474

Cambodia. See Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC)

Cameron, AM, 208–210

Canada, statutory interpretation in, 490

Cançado Trindade, Antônio Augusto, 436–437, 443

Capotorti, F., 397

Carty, A., 31

Cassese, Antonio, 59

Certitudinal aspect, 222–223

Chagos Advisory Opinion (ICJ 2019)

CIL in, 437

crystallisation of rules and, 269–270, 444–445

erga omnes obligations and, 443

estoppel and, 436–437

factual background, 435–437

general rules of CIL and, 440–441

identification of CIL in, 443–445

interpretation of CIL in, 428, 442–449

limited analysis in, 278

prescription and, 436–437

self-determination and, 243–244, 269–270, 278, 428, 442–449

UN General Assembly Resolutions, reliance on, 243–244, 269–270

uti possidetis juris and, 447–448

Chagos Islands, 243. See also Chagos Advisory Opinion (ICJ 2019)

Charlesworth, Hilary, 317

Chasapis Tassinis, O., 396–397

Cheng, Bin, 17

Child marriage, 342–343

Chile

authoritative written documents, interpreting CIL norms in, 504

ICJ Statute Art. 38, application in, 147–148

China, People’s Liberation Army, 316

Choi, S. J., 234, 410

‘Chronological paradox’, 110

CJEU. See Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU)

Clarification, interpretation as, 388–392

Cohen, Harlan, 59

Coherence, 438–439

Colombia

Ejército de Liberación Nacional, 317

Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia, 305

non-state armed groups (NSAGs) in, 305, 306, 317

Colombian-Peruvian Asylum case. See Asylum case (ICJ 1950)

Comfort women, 359, 364–365

Comity, 441

Command responsibility, 407–408

Committee on the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW Committee), 320–321

Committee on the Rights of the Child, 337–338

Communitarian semantics, 217–218

Concept of Law (Hart), 65, 189

Conforti, B., 154

Container/content duality

generally, 371, 372, 385–386, 392

clarification, interpretation as, 388–392

elements of custom distinguished from CIL, 401

evolutive interpretation and, 388–392

identification, interpretation as, 386–388

ILC and, 373

light analogy, 375

linguistic formulas and, 373–374

state positions and, 374–375

state practice as both container and content, 375

statutes as containers, 372–373

treaties as containers, 372–373

Content determination, 404, 407, 423–424, 460–461

Contract law, 470–471

Conundrum of CIL, 3–4

Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (Torture Convention) (1984), 268, 328

Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees (Refugee Convention) (1951), 503

Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (1997), 318

Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property (2004), 163–164, 168, 242–243, 500, 501–502

Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) (1979), 342

Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) (1982), 145, 247–248, 502–503

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Genocide Convention) (1948), 251

Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (1989), 337–338, 342

Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of Other States (1966), 145

‘Convergence theory’, 245

‘Core of settled meaning’, 198

Corporal punishment, 337–338

Corporate liability, 489–490

Correlative enkapsis, 213

‘Corrupt pedigree’, 40, 57–59

Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU)

interpretation of CIL in, 366–367

Kadi case, 366–367

misinterpretation of CIL and, 53

reference for preliminary ruling, 173

Cowan, Jane, 330

Crawford, James, 171, 176, 441–442

CRC. See Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (1989)

Creation of CIL

approximately plausible empowerment norms (AppPENs) and, 26–28

CIL as primitive form of, 28

default position, 24–25

different branches of international law having different rules in relation to, 323

identification of CIL versus, 17–20

interpretation of CIL and, 40–41

law-creating in inductive reasoning, 70

meta-meta law and, 23–24

opinio juris as law-creating element, 18

state interests and, 95–96

state practice as law-creating element, 18

temporary dimension, collapse of, 90–94

Criddle, E. J., 445

Crimes against humanity, 106, 164

Crystallisation of rules

Chagos case and, 269–270, 444–445

custom-making moment and, 33

ICTY and, 54–55, 264–265, 267

ILC and, 180

interpretation following, 504–505

jus cogens and, 311–312

misinterpretation of CIL and, 48, 61

pacta sunt servanda and, 112

self-determination and, 269–270, 444–445

state immunity and, 247

state official immunity and, 494, 497–499

treaty interpretation and, 411–413

VCLT and, 42

Custom

agreement versus, 89–90

CIL and, 27

comparative analysis, 141

criticisms of role in CIL, 233

custom in foro versus custom in pays, 154, 156–158, 159–160

custom-making moment (See Custom-making moment)

‘custom plus’, 48

elements of custom distinguished from CIL, 399–401, 405, 406, 413

as historical basis of law, 185–186

ICJ and, 411

ICJ Statute Art. 38, custom as source of legal obligation in, 88, 89–90

‘instant’ custom, 127–128, 130

interpretation of CIL, improper analysis of custom in, 47

‘oceanic’ custom, 441–442

‘ontological’ custom, 442

opinio juris and, 88–90, 93–94, 400

outstanding questions regarding, 231–232

PCIJ and, 399–400

regional custom, 74–75

‘Schrödinger’s custom’, 88, 90–94, 101

as source of legal obligation, 88–90

as source of rules arising out of general practice, 141–151

UN General Assembly Resolutions and, 321–322

verbal practice and, 14–16

Customary international law (CIL). See specific topic

Customary process, 6, 40–41, 57–58, 61, 396, 487

Custom-making moment

generally, 32

anonymity and, 37–38

crystallisation of rules and, 33

as fiction, 32–33

foundationalism and, 38–39

ILC on, 34–35, 38

impunity and, 37–38

in international legal discourse, 33–35

presumption of, 31–32

two-dimensional temporality of CIL and, 36–37

‘Custom plus’, 48

Cyber warfare, 389

D’Amato, Anthony, 40–41, 324

d’Aspremont, Jean

communitarian semantics and, 218

on convergence of state practice and opinio juris, 203–204

on human rights law, 323

iconoclastic view of CIL and, 4–6, 8–11

law-identification versus law-creating, 18, 19

on non-state armed groups (NSAGs), 313

on state interests, 95

verbal practice and, 13, 14–15, 16

Daugirdas, Kristina, 304

Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples (1960), 326

Deductive reasoning

absence in CIL and, 69–70, 71–72, 85

axiomatic principles and, 257

filling lacunae, 256

methodological dualism with inductive reasoning, 256–258, 275–276

‘modern’ deductive reasoning, 71, 85

traditional deductive reasoning, 71, 85

Deference

‘cycle of contestation and deference’, 454, 464–465, 476–477

international courts and tribunals, deference of domestic courts to, 499–501, 505

De Gaulle, Charles, 95

Deleuze, Gilles, 393

Derrida, Jacques, 393, 438

Descamps, Baron, 231

de Visscher, Charles, 92, 395–396, 401

Differentiated responsibility, 219

Differentiation, 393

Dinstein, Y., 141–142

Diplomatic immunity, 125

Diplomatic protection, 223–224, 225, 427

Discourse vandalism, 39

Discretion of court. See Judicial discretion in ascertaining CIL

Dixon, Martin, 96

Doctrine of sources, 30, 371–372

Dolzer, R., 152

Domestic courts, CIL and. See also specific country

authoritative written documents, interpreting CIL norms in, 502–504, 505

autonomous interpretation of CIL in, 493–499, 505

beyond framework of sources, 463–465, 480

concurrent character of decisions, 150–151

contributions to interpretation of CIL, 454–455, 465–466, 481

‘cycle of contestation and deference’, 454, 464–465, 476–477

development of international law, contributions to, 453–454, 461

duality in interaction with international law, 463–464

empirical study of domestic courts and CIL, 487–489

evolutive interpretation in, 469–470, 471–474, 475, 479

‘false positives’ of interpretation of CIL in, 489–492

in federal states (See Federal states, CIL and)

‘feedback loop’ with international law, 464, 478–479

within framework of sources, 461–463

general principles of law and, 453, 475–476

ICJ as authority for CIL in, 247, 499–501

ICJ Statute Art. 38, application of, 146–151, 462, 476

identification of CIL versus interpretation of CIL in, 481, 482–487

immunities, decisions regarding, 490–491, 492–493

increasing use of CIL in as reason for learning from, 478, 480

international courts and tribunals, deference to, 499–501, 505

interpretation of CIL in, 466–470

interpretive method in, 465–466, 475–477, 479

jus cogens and, 494, 496

opinio juris and, 453

overview of case law, 455

professed interpretation of CIL actually identification of CIL in, 489–490

recommendations, 505–506

regulation of sources of international law and, 146–151

‘reverse’ consistent interpretation in, 491–492

state immunity and, 499–501

state official immunity and, 493–499

state practice and, 453, 475

statutory interpretation versus interpretation of CIL in, 490–491

subsidiary means for interpretation of CIL, 476

systemic interpretation in, 475, 479, 505

teleological interpretation in, 469–471, 475, 479

tools provided from CIL as reason for learning from, 478–479, 480

treaty interpretation and, 453

‘true positives’ of interpretation of CIL in, 481–482, 492–504

unregulated and underdeveloped state of CIL as reason for learning from, 477–478, 480

VCLT and, 462, 494, 495–496, 497, 500, 501, 502, 503

Domestic violence, 320–321

Domínguez-Redondo, Elvira, 334

Dominican Republic

domestic violence in, 320

Universal Periodic Review Recommendations and, 320

‘Do no harm’ principle, 118, 125

Dooyeweerd, Herman

generally, 204–205

communitarian semantics and, 217–218

differentiated responsibility, 219

encyclopedic approach to concept of law (See Encyclopedic approach to concept of law)

enkapsis (See Enkapsis)

on inter-legality, 205

jural aspect (See Jural aspect)

modal aspects of reality (See Modal aspects of reality)

theory of entities (See Theory of entities)

Draft Conclusions on Identification of Customary International Law (ILC)

ICJ and, 280

international courts and tribunals and, 233–234, 237, 499

international organisations (IOs) and, 333

interpretation and, 46, 58, 397–398, 416–417

jus cogens and, 361–362

non-state armed groups (NSAGs) and, 300, 303–304

opinio juris and, 130–131, 133

state consent and, 111, 112, 130–131, 133

state practice and, 58

treaty interpretation and, 363

two-factor formula in, 259–260, 277, 322–323

Dupuy, P. M., 138, 363

Duress defence, 265–266

Dworkin, Ronald, 65, 184

ECCC. See Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC)

Economic theory of negligence, 94

Egypt, on crimes against humanity, 164

El Salvador

Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, 305

non-state armed groups (NSAGs) in, 305

Empowerment norms, 23

Encyclopedia of the Science of Law (Dooyeweerd), 204–205, 226

Encyclopedic approach to concept of law

generally, 206–207

enkapsis (See Enkapsis)

modal aspects of reality (See Modal aspects of reality)

theory of entities (See Theory of entities)

three pillars of, 207

two-factor formula of CIL and, 227

Endicott, T. A. O., 402

Energy Charter Treaty (1994), 23

Enkapsis

generally, 205, 227

communitarian semantics and, 217–218

coordinational interests and, 224–226

correlative enkapsis, 213

defined, 212–213

environmental protection and, 220

inter-legality and, 219–221, 225, 227, 228

international humanitarian law (IHL) and, 220

‘legal’ enkapsis, 213, 224–226, 227

pluralist ontology and, 218–219

positive law and, 212–213

public–private divide and, 224–226

religious freedom and, 220

social relationships and, 213

territorial enkapsis, 213

unilateral enkapsis, 213

‘Enlightened positivism’, 93

Enrica Lexie Arbitration (2020), 243

Environmental protection, 220

Equidistance principle, 390

Equity

generally, 201–202

as agency of change, 196, 199–201

human rights law and, 199–200

international organisations (IOs) and, 201

Erga omnes obligations, 224, 225, 443

Estoppel, 436–437

Ethical aspect, 222–223

European Convention on State Immunity (1972), 242

European Court of Human Rights

corporal punishment and, 337

de facto precedent, problem of adopting, 247

interpretation in, 397–398

state immunity in, 247

WTO Appellate Body and, 280

European Journal of International Law, 5

Evolutive interpretation, 388–392, 469–470, 471–474, 475, 479

Ex aequo et bono, 433

Exitus acta probat, 49, 52

Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC)

Joint Criminal Enterprise (JCE) and, 50–52

misinterpretation of CIL and, 50–52

Extraordinary rendition, 496–497

‘Fair play’ principle, 118–119

Faith aspect, 222–223

False alternatives, fallacy of, 77–78

‘False positives’ of interpretation of CIL in domestic courts, 489–492

Falsification test, 65

Families

adoption and, 197

CIL and, 187

development of customary law in, 186–188

lineage and, 197

states compared, 187, 189

Federal Republic of Germany. See West Germany

Federal states, CIL and

generally, 507, 509

Austria (See Austria)

nature of states in, 508

Weimar Republic (See Weimar Republic)

West Germany (See West Germany)

‘Feedback loop’ between domestic courts and international law, 464, 478–479

Female genital mutilation (FGM), 473–474

Feminist theory, state consent and, 126, 128

Ferguson, Niall, 439

Fiore’s Draft Code, 357

Formalism

generally, 183–184

CIL as contra to existing law, 195–196

effect of interpretation of rules on practice, 192–193

examples, interaction with rules, 191

formalisation of CIL, 190–196

identification of CIL and, 183

interpretation of rules and, 192–194

practice versus rules, 191–192

strategic formalism, 194–196, 202

supplementing versus replacing CIL, 194–196

Formal rationality, 73–75

Forteau, Mathias, 397–398

Fortin, Katharine, 313

Foundationalism, 38–39

Fox-Decent, E., 445

Fragmentation of law, ILC and, 165, 167, 170–176, 179

France

corporal punishment and, 338

Germany, occupation of, 516

Universal Periodic Review Recommendations and, 338

Freedom of seas, 81

‘Frustrated iconoclasts’, 8–11

Fuller, Lon, 380

Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros case (ICJ 1997)

generally, 283

interpretation of CIL in, 364

necessity and, 250

state responsibility and, 177

Games versus law, 155–156

General norms, 396

General practice accepted as law. See Opinio juris

Geneva Call, 306–307, 308, 317

Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf (1958), 236

Geneva Conventions (1949)

Additional Protocol I (1977), 467–468

Additional Protocol II (1977), 504

as CIL, 271

Common Article 3, 270–271, 301, 408

fair trial and, 270–271

non-state armed groups (NSAGs) and, 298, 301

Genocide, 106, 123

Genocide Convention (1948), 251

Germany

ambiguity regarding CIL in, 529

Constitution of 1871, 512

domestic courts, ICJ as authority for CIL in, 500

nature of states in, 507–508

Prussia, preeminence of in German Empire, 512

reunification of, 523

state immunity and, 500

treaties, domestic law and, 508

Weimar Republic (See Weimar Republic)

West Germany (See West Germany)

Ghana

criminalisation of same sex relations in, 324–325

ICCPR and, 324–325

Global Initiative to End Corporal Punishment of Children, 337

Good faith principle, 295

Gorobets, Kostiantyn, 401

Great Belt Bridge, 352

Greece, Code of Civil Procedure, 356

Gros, André, 419–420

Grotius, Hugo, 421–422

Group of 77, 331

Grundnorm, 24, 26, 63, 69

Guastini, R., 272

Guillaume, Gilbert, 173, 176, 411

Gujadhur, S., 331–332

Gulati, M., 234, 410

Günther, Herbert, 25–26

Habit, state practice distinguished, 376–377, 383

Hafner, Gerald, 96, 99

Hague Convention on Rules and Regulations covering Land Warfare (1899), 220

Hakimi, Monica, 376

Hamster, Jorian, 478

‘Hand-waving’, 439

Hart, H.L.A.

generally, 184

‘fair play’ principle and, 118–119

Grundnorm and, 26

on law as science, 65

legal positivism and, 10, 62–63

non-manipulation principle and, 119

on practice, 378

primary rules versus secondary rules, 140, 152

on Roman law, 190–191

rule of recognition and, 69, 155, 156, 372

on sovereignty, 189

state consent and, 107, 129

Harvard Draft Convention on the Law of Treaties, 290–291

Hayek, G., 194

Head of state immunity, 55–56, 106, 435, 440

Henderson, 204

Henkin, Louis, 88, 94, 158, 232, 233

Heraclitus, 393

Hermeneutics, 437–438

Hierarchy of CIL

generally, 20–22

approximately plausible empowerment norms (AppPENs), 26–28

empowerment norms, 23

legal methodology and, 21

meta-law, 23

meta-meta law, 23–24

structural analysis and, 20, 21–22

substantive norms, 23

Higgins, Rosalyn, 321–322

‘Historically first constitution’, 23

Hmoud, Mahmoud D., 397–398

Hobbes, Thomas, 96, 97

HRC. See Human Rights Council (HRC)

Hudson, Manley, 165

Human Rights Committee, 324–325

Human Rights Council (HRC)

child marriage and, 342

creation, 321

ICCPR and, 342

Resolution 16/21, 333–334

Universal Periodic Review Recommendations (See Universal Periodic Review Recommendations)

Human rights law

abuses by states, impact on state practice, 323–324

debate regarding prohibited practices, 324–325

equity and, 199–200

ICJ and, 324

identification of CIL in, 322–326

obligation, state attitudes toward, 325

realist criticisms of, 323–324

Universal Periodic Review Recommendations (See Universal Periodic Review Recommendations)

Hume, David, 67–68

Hybrid interpretation, 358

Hypothetical nature of CIL, 433–434

Ibáñez Carranza, Luz Del Carmen, 55

ICC. See International Criminal Court (ICC)

ICJ. See International Court of Justice (ICJ)

ICJ Statute Art. 38

adoption of, 144

application outside ICJ, 143–151

as codificatory of CIL rules, 154

custom as source of legal obligation in, 88, 89–90

as declaratory of CIL rules, 151–153

domestic courts, application in, 146–151, 462, 476

elements of CIL in, 44–46

identification of CIL versus interpretation of CIL, 485

international courts and tribunals, application in, 143–144, 176–177

judicial discretion and, 264

law-identifying versus law-creating, 70

‘oceanic’ custom distinguished from CIL in, 442

opinio juris and, 235, 277, 299, 399

as positive law, 145–146

as reflective of CIL rules, 151–153

regulation of sources of international law and, 137–138, 141, 143–154, 159

state practice and, 144–151, 235

treaties, application in, 145

two-factor formula in, 44–46, 277, 399

Iconoclastic view of CIL

generally, 4, 5

belief system, international law as, 8–11

‘frustrated iconoclasts’, 8–11

noncognitivism and, 10

problems with, 5–6

reductivism and, 8–11

‘ruleness’ versus, 10

ICRC. See International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)

ICTY. See International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY)

Identification of CIL

content determination distinguished, 259–260

determination versus, 37

dynamic of CIL and, 424–425

as empirical assessment, 88

formalisation in legal scholarship, 421

formalism and, 183

in human rights law, 322–326

ICJ Statute Art. 38, identification of CIL versus interpretation of CIL, 485

as intellectual operation, 422

in international courts and tribunals (See International courts and tribunals)

interpretation as identification, 386–388

interpretation of CIL distinguished, 394, 404–407, 413, 417–418, 420–429, 459–460

in investment tribunals, 241

in investor–state dispute settlement, 244–246

justification of rules distinguished, 262

as law ascertainment and content determination, 404

law-creating versus, 17–20

meta-law on, 234

observer, role of, 90–94, 101

opinio juris as law-identification element, 18

realism and, 183–184

‘Schrödinger’s custom’, 88, 90–94, 101

state interests and, 100, 101

state practice as law-identification element, 18

temporary dimension, collapse of, 90–94

traditional method (See Traditional method of ascertaining CIL)

two-factor formula and, 226, 235–236, 273–274

universal methodology, myth of, 260–261

in WTO Appellate Body (See World Trade Organization (WTO) Appellate Body)

Identification of Customary Law Project (ILC)

argumentative strategy versus epistemological method for identifying CIL, 259–263

convergence of state practice and opinio juris, 203–204

formalisation and, 421–422

judicial discretion and, 258

law-identification versus law-making, 18–19

pragmatic view of CIL and, 4–5, 6–7

state consent and, 108

Ignorance, fallacy of, 76–77, 81–82

IHL. See International humanitarian law (IHL)

Ihlen Declaration between the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of Norway and Denmark, 352

ILA. See International Law Association (ILA)

ILC. See International Law Commission (ILC)

Immunities

diplomatic immunity, 125

domestic court decisions regarding, 490–491, 492–493

head of state immunity, 55–56, 106, 435, 440

state immunity, 247, 425–427, 499–501

state official immunity, 493–499

Incidents of statehood, 442

India

non-state armed groups (NSAGs) in, 316

Universal Periodic Review Recommendations and, 328

Indonesia

child marriage and, 342

ICJ Statute Art. 38, application in, 148

Universal Periodic Review Recommendations and, 342

In dubio mitius, 281–282, 360

Inductive reasoning

absence in CIL and, 69–71

law-creating in, 70

methodological dualism with deductive reasoning, 256–258, 275–276

opinio juris and, 256–257

selectivity in, 70

state practice and, 256–257

subjectivity in, 70

Inference, 82–83

Inheritance law, 471–473

‘Instant’ custom, 127–128, 130

Institut de Droit International, 361, 419

Interactionism, 186

Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 280, 337

Inter-legality, 205, 219–221, 225, 227, 228

International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID), 177–179, 457

International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur, 300, 314

International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)

Customary IHL, 299–300, 314

on hostilities, 468

international humanitarian law (IHL) and, 440

non-state armed groups (NSAGs) and, 299–300, 314, 319

on opinio juris versus state practice, 13, 267

on verbal practice, 12

International Court of Justice (ICJ)

generally, 24

absence in CIL and (See Absence in CIL)

acceptance by majority of states and, 498–499

Application of the Convention of Genocide case, 251

argument from silence in, 80–81

ARSIWA and, 248, 250–251

assertion of existence of CIL in, 234

Asylum case (See Asylum case (ICJ 1950))

as authority for CIL, 442

Barcelona Traction case (See Barcelona Traction case (ICJ 1970))

Burkina Faso/Mali Frontier Dispute case, 74

Certain Activities case, 248

Chagos Advisory Opinion (See Chagos Advisory Opinion (ICJ 2019))

classification of approaches to CIL, 234

Colombian–Peruvian Asylum case (See Asylum case (ICJ 1950))

Construction of a Wall case, 74

Corfu Channel case, 271

Croatia–Serbia Genocide case, 363–364

custom and, 411

Diallo case, 177, 182

diplomatic protection and, 223–224, 225

domestic courts, ICJ as authority for CIL in, 247, 499–501

draft articles, use of, 177

elements of custom distinguished from CIL, 400

erga omnes obligations and, 224, 225

Fisheries case, 75, 80–81

flexibility in identifying CIL, problems with, 253–255

Frontier Dispute case, 457–458

Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros case (See Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros case (ICJ 1997))

Genocide Reservations Advisory Opinion, 321

Gulf of Maine case, 71, 349, 419–420

Habré case, 179–180

human rights law and, 324

ILC as authority for CIL in, 179–180, 182, 239–240, 250–252

ILC Draft Conclusions and, 280

improper generalisations regarding CIL in, 247–248

international courts and tribunals, ICJ as authority for CIL in, 239–240, 247–249

interpretation of CIL in, 349, 354, 363–364, 457–458 (See also specific case)

interpretation of treaties in, 43

judicial discretion in, 269–270

Jurisdictional Immunities of the State case (See Jurisdictional Immunities of the State case (ICJ 2012))

jus cogens and, 312

Kosovo Advisory Opinion (See Kosovo Advisory Opinion (ICJ 2010))

Land, Island and Maritime Dispute case, 74

Legal Consequences of the Separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965 Advisory Opinion (See Chagos Advisory Opinion (ICJ 2019))

Legality of the Threat and Use of Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion (See Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion (ICJ 1996))

meta-law on identification of CIL and, 234

Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua case (See Nicaragua case (ICJ 1986))

Nicaragua case (See Nicaragua case (ICJ 1986))

North Sea Continental Shelf case (See North Sea Continental Shelf case (ICJ 1969))

Nuclear Tests case, 353

Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion (See Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion (ICJ 1996))

opinio juris and, 16–17

Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh case, 72–73

persuasive argumentation in, 63, 73–75

role in international law, 173

South West Africa Advisory Opinion, 221–223, 484

standing in, 221

state practice and, 376–377

Statute Art. 38 (See ICJ Statute Art. 38)

systemic issues regarding identifying CIL in, 253–255

Temple of Preah Vihear case, 72–73

Territorial and Maritime Dispute in the Caribbean Sea case, 74, 247–248

territorial tort exception and, 242–243, 425–427

torture and, 179–180

traditional method of ascertaining CIL, ignoring, 234

treaties, locating CIL in, 242–244

two-factor formula and, 357

UN General Assembly Resolutions and, 322, 343

on unilateral acts of states, 353

use of force and, 220

uti possidetis juris and, 457–458

WTO Appellate Body, as authority for CIL in, 247, 280, 283, 287, 296

International courts and tribunals. See also specific court or tribunal

generally, 234–235

absence of decision on CIL in, 248–249

accepting agreement of parties as to CIL, 240–241

assertion of CIL without demonstration, 240

de facto precedent, problem of adopting, 247

domestic courts, deference by, 499–501, 505

draft articles, use of, 177

ICJ as authority for CIL in, 239–240, 247–249

ICJ Statute Art. 38, application of, 143–144, 176–177

ILC as authority for CIL in, 175, 176–180, 239–240, 249–252

ILC Draft Conclusions and, 233–234, 237, 499

improper generalizations regarding CIL in, 247–248

institutional constraints in identifying CIL, 238

investment tribunals, 177–179, 241

judges, role of, 237–238

legal fiction in, 197–198

practical constraints in identifying CIL, 238

regulation of sources of international law and, 143–144

shortcuts in identifying CIL, 239–241, 252–253

traditional method of ascertaining CIL in, 235–239

treaties, locating CIL in, 239–240, 241–246

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) (1966), 324–325, 342

International Criminal Court (ICC)

Al Bashir case, 55

head of state immunity and, 55–56, 435

interpretation of CIL in, 354

Rome Statute (1998), 163–164, 354, 503

South Africa case, 56

International criminal law, judicial discretion in, 258

International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)

Joint Criminal Enterprise (JCE) and, 270

judicial discretion in, 270–271

Kayishema & Ruzindana case, 270–271

Rwamakuba case, 270

International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY)

actus reus in, 52–53

command responsibility and, 407–408

crystallisation of rules and, 54–55, 264–265, 267

duress defence and, 265–266

Erdemović case, 265–266, 267

extensive empirical test in, 265–266

Furundžija case, 266, 268, 408–409

Hadžihasanović case, 271, 363, 407–408, 409

interpretation of CIL in, 363, 458

Joint Criminal Enterprise (JCE) and, 50–52

judicial discretion in, 264–268, 270–271

Kordić case, 271

Kupreškić case, 53–55, 267–268

Martić case, 267

misinterpretation of CIL and, 50–55

non-state armed groups (NSAGs) and, 300, 314

Orić case, 408

Perisić case, 52–53

rape and, 408–409

relation of opinio juris to state practice in, 53–55, 267–268

reprisals and, 267

sufficiently widespread practice standard in, 266

Tadić case, 50–51, 270, 271

torture and, 268

treaty interpretation in, 407–409

International humanitarian law (IHL)

as CIL, 440

enkapsis and, 220

equal application of, 315–316

ICRC and, 440

non-state armed groups (NSAGs), incorporation into CIL (See Non-state armed groups (NSAGs), incorporation into CIL)

protective standards, 316–318

International Law as a Belief System (d’Aspremont), 4, 8–11, 19

International Law Association (ILA), 333, 343, 380–381

International Law Commission (ILC)

generally, 163

ability to make choices and, 181

acceptance by majority of states and, 498–499

Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (See Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (ARSIWA))

on aut dedere aut judicare, 165, 167

codification attempts, 231

container/content duality and, 373

on crimes against humanity, 164

‘crucible approach’ to interpretation of CIL, 350

current activity, 166–169

on custom-making moment, 34–35, 38

draft articles leading to treaties, 163–164, 168

draft articles not leading to treaties, 164, 168, 177

Draft Conclusions on Identification of Customary International Law (See Draft Conclusions on Identification of Customary International Law (ILC))

elements of custom distinguished from CIL, 400–401

as epistemic authority, 7

fragmentation of law and, 165, 167, 170–176, 179

guidelines, 161–163, 164–165, 166–167

Guide to Practice on Reservations to Treaties, 166–167, 181

Guiding Principles applicable to Unilateral Declarations of State, 456–457

historical background, 163–166

ICJ, ILC as authority for CIL in, 179–180, 182, 250–252

identification of CIL versus interpretation of CIL, 486

Identification of Customary Law Project (See Identification of Customary Law Project (ILC))

identification versus determination, 37

international courts and tribunals, ILC as authority for CIL in, 175, 176–180, 239–240, 249–252

investment tribunals and, 177–179

jus cogens and, 312

law-creating, insufficiency of approach to, 24

law-identification versus law-creating, 18–19

legality of activities, 169–170

legal scholarship and, 172, 174–175

on MFN clause, 165, 167, 178–179, 181

opinio juris and, 181

pragmatism and, 181

progressive development and, 169

quotability, 180–181

on reservations, 179

restatements of law, 161–163

shift away from draft articles and treaties, 161–163, 170–176, 180

shift from prescriptive to descriptive work, 161–163, 170–176, 180

state practice and, 181, 376–377

Statute, 169–170

studies, 165, 167–168, 178–179

topics addressed by, 163–166

two-factor formula and, 226, 235–236

UN Charter and, 169

on unilateral acts of states, 353, 456–457

Universal Periodic Review Recommendations and, 343

VCLT and, 162, 168, 179

verbal practice and, 12, 13

weakening of international law, 174

Working Group on the Long-Term Programme, 170

International Law in Domestc Courts (ILDC) (database), 487–488

International Law (Maine), 188

International Law Reports (ILR), 488

International legal reasoning, scientific method and. See Social science, law as

International Military Tribunal, 270

International organisations (IOs)

applicability of CIL to, 483

equity and, 201

ILC Draft Conclusions and, 333

International relations theory, 94

International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, 172–173, 248

Interpretation of CIL

generally, 395, 449, 455

analogic interpretation, 428–429

as applicative construction, 401–404

‘bootstrapping’ and, 435, 438

in case law, 347–348, 356–361

in CJEU, 366–367

as clarification, 386–388

as cognitive act, 275, 415

coherence and, 438–439

construction versus, 403

content determination in, 404, 407, 423–424, 460–461

contributions of domestic courts, 454–455, 465–466, 481

as creative, 369

‘crucible approach’, 350

crystallisation of rules, following, 504–505

custom, improper analysis of, 47

defined, 394–395, 402, 404, 413, 418–420

deriving norms from state practice, 404–406

different sources of law and, 433

difficulty in, 347, 393–394

in domestic courts, 466–470

in domestic law generally, 353–354, 369

in domestic legislation, 355–356

dynamic of CIL and, 424–425

elements of custom distinguished from CIL, 399–401, 405–406, 413

evidence of opinio juris and state practice confused with, 424

evolutive interpretation, 388–392, 469–470, 471–474, 475, 479

formalisation in legal scholarship, 421

general rules of CIL and, 439–440

‘hand-waving’ and, 439

hybrid interpretation, 358

hypothetical nature of CIL and, 433–434

in ICC, 354

in ICJ, 349, 354, 363–364, 457–458 (See also specific case)

ICJ Statute Art. 38, identification of CIL versus interpretation of CIL, 485

in ICTY, 363, 458

as identification, 386–388

identification of CIL distinguished, 394, 404–407, 413, 417–418, 420–429, 459–460

by ILC, 46

ILC Draft Conclusions and, 46, 58

inconsistent state practice and opinio juris, 404–405, 406

intent of parties, 44

in international law generally, 353–354, 369

judicial acts viewed as, 404–407

jus cogens as limiting, 361–362

law-creating and, 40–41

as legal operation, 422

legal positivism and, 414–415

in legal scholarship, 395–398

in legislation, 347–348

limitations of, 348, 361–368

logical interpretation, 357

merger of content with existence, objection to interpretability based on, 348–349, 399, 456

methodological questions regarding, 43–44

methods of, 46–47

misinterpretation (See Misinterpretation of CIL)

modification distinguished, 362–364

moment of application and, 423–424, 427–428, 429–430

as negentropic, 369

in new situations, 432–433

objections to interpretability, 347, 348–353, 399

opinio juris and, 101

oral agreements and, 350–352

in PCIJ, 354–355

practical reasoning in, 370–371

by proxy, 358

questions regarding, 416, 430–431

relevance of, 414–415

restrictive interpretation, 428–429

‘reverse’ consistent interpretation, 368, 491–492

revision distinguished, 362–364

state positions and, 404–405, 406

systemic integration, 358–359, 368

systemic interpretation, 475, 479, 491, 505

teleological interpretation, 359, 365–366, 469–471, 475, 479

‘this may represent international law’, 433

treaty interpretation distinguished, 394, 407–413, 429, 454, 456

two-factor formula and, 347, 348–349

type of legal system, effect of, 416

uncertain nature of CIL and, 433–434

unilateral acts of states and, 353, 456–457

unwritten nature of CIL, objection to interpretability based on, 349–353, 399, 456–457

unwritten rules, 429

VCLT and, 42, 350, 364, 397

in WTO Appellate Body, 458

Interpretive approach, 163

Interpretive method in domestic courts, 465–466, 475–477, 479

Interpretive process, 193, 448–449

Investment tribunals, 177–179, 241

Investor–state dispute settlement and, 244–246

Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS), 309

Island of Palmas Arbitration (1928), 43

Israel

authoritative written documents, interpreting CIL norms in, 503–504

evolutive interpretation in, 469–470

interpretation of CIL in, 359, 360, 365–366, 367, 466–470

‘reverse’ consistent interpretation in, 491

targeted killing of terrorists, 466–470

teleological interpretation in, 469–470

treaty interpretation in, 469

Italy

autonomous interpretation of CIL in, 496–497

constitution, 366–367

domestic courts, ICJ as authority for CIL in, 499–500

extraordinary rendition and, 496–497

interpretation of CIL in, 358–359, 366–367

state immunity and, 499–500

state official immunity and, 496–497

statutory interpretation in, 490

UN Charter and, 366

Jacobsson, Marie G., 397–398

JCE. See Joint Criminal Enterprise (JCE)

Jennings, Robert Y., 141, 148, 153, 172, 411

Jo, Hyeran, 306

Joint Criminal Enterprise (JCE), 50–52, 270

Joyner, Christopher, 336

Judicial discretion in ascertaining CIL

generally, 258, 274–276

argumentative strategy, 276

authoritative verbalisation of rules, 258

defined, 263–264

extensive empirical test, 265–266

in ICJ, 269–270

ICJ Statute Art. 38 and, 264

in ICTR, 270–271

in ICTY, 264–268, 270–271

ILC Identification of Customary Law Project and, 258

in international criminal law, 258

norm-descriptive statements and, 272–274

in practice, 263–269

prior written formulations of unexpressed rules and, 269–274

rules of interpretation and, 258

sufficiently widespread practice standard, 266

‘Judicialisation,’ 172

Jural aspect

generally, 226–227

anticipations, 209–210, 225

architectonic structure of, 210–211, 216, 227

constitutive aspects, 209–210

disclosure and, 209–210

regulative aspects, 209–210

retribution and, 208–209

retrocipations, 209–210, 224–225

Jurisdictional Immunities of the State case (ICJ 2012)

domestic courts, ICJ as authority for CIL in, 247, 499–501

ILC Draft Conclusions and, 273

interpretation of CIL in, 366–367, 418, 425–427, 429–430, 501–502

territorial tort exception and, 242–243, 425–427

two-factor formula in, 44–46, 242–243

Jus ad bellum, 315, 411

Jus cogens

CIL distinguished, 440–441

crystallisation of rules and, 311–312

as ‘custom plus’, 48

domestic courts and, 494, 496

ICJ and, 312

ILC and, 312

ILC Draft Conclusions and, 361–362

interpretation of CIL, as limiting, 361–362

non-state armed groups (NSAGs) and, 311–312

state consent and, 106, 112, 123, 134–135, 136

Jus in bello, 315, 411

Kammerhofer, Jörg, 68, 84, 402–403

Kanetake, M., 464–465

Kant, Immanuel, 98–99, 203

Kellogg–Briand Peace Pact (1928), 131

Kelsen, Hans

generally, 84, 189, 442

on custom, 401

formal laws and, 213–214

Grundnorm and, 26, 63, 69

on hierarchy of law, 21–22, 23, 26

on interpretation, 419–420

on law as science, 66–67

on logic in law, 66–67

on sources of international law, 138

Kenya

burial law in, 474

evolutive interpretation in, 471–474

female genital mutilation (FGM) in, 473–474

inheritance law in, 471–473

interpretation of CIL in, 471–474

Judicature Act, 472–474

Kissinger, Henry, 95

Kohen, Marcelo, 178–179

Kolb, R., 353

Koskenniemi, Martti, 95, 135–136, 385

Kosovo Advisory Opinion (ICJ 2010)

generally, 73

argument from silence in, 81–82, 85–86

declarations of independence in, 77–78

fallacy of false alternatives in, 77–78

fallacy of ignorance in, 81–82

inference in, 82–83

internal inconsistency of, 84

logical fallacies in, 75–84

syllogistic fallacy in, 82–83

Kreća, Milenko, 363–364

Kuyper, Abraham, 204

Lamond, G., 155–157, 159–160

Landmines, 317

Lauterpacht, Hersch, 149, 153, 154, 158, 428–429

Law formation. See Creation of CIL

League of Nations, 165, 221–222, 355

Le Droit des Gens (de Vattel), 95

Legal Consequences of the Separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965 Advisory Opinion. See Chagos Advisory Opinion (ICJ 2019)

Legal discourse, 437–438

‘Legal’ enkapsis, 213, 224–226, 227

Legal fiction

generally, 201–202

as agency of change, 196, 197–199

in international courts and tribunals, 197–198

ultra vires and, 198

Legality of the Threat and Use of Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion. See Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion (ICJ 1996)

Legal obligation, custom as source of, 88–90

Legal positivism

absence and, 62–63

doctrine of sources and, 372

iconoclastic view of CIL and, 10

interpretation and, 414–415

Legislation as agency of change, 196–197

Legitimate authority. See State consent

Leiden Journal of International Law, 453–454

Lepard, Brian D., 154, 325–326–, 335, 336–337, 344

Levi-Strauss, Claude, 437–438

Lex ferenda, 40, 47–48, 69, 300

Lex hypothetica, 434

Lex lata, 69, 92, 299–300

Libya, National Transitional Council, 318

Limon, M., 331–332

Lineage, 197

Logical fallacies, 75–84

Logical interpretation, 357

Loschin, Lynn, 335

Lotus case (PCIJ 1927)

generally, 77, 79, 83

argument from silence in, 81

freedom of seas and, 81

non-state actors and, 84

opinio juris and, 130–131

presumption in favour of state action, 68–69

restrictions on states and, 25, 78

state practice and, 388

MacCormick, N., 107, 119

Maine, Henry

generally, 183, 184, 195

on agencies of change, 193–194, 196

on equity, 199, 200

evolutionary narrative of CIL, 202

on family as institution, 186–188

on formalism, 193–194, 202

historical basis of law and, 184–185

jurisprudence and, 184

on legal fiction, 197

on origins of CIL, 185–190

on practice, 191

on primacy of CIL over states, 189

reconceptualisation of CIL based on, 202

on Roman law, 190–191

on sovereignty, 188, 190

Marceau, G., 288–289

Marek, K., 141

Martens Clause, 420–421

Mauritius, Chagos Islands and, 243, 435–437. See also Chagos Advisory Opinion (ICJ 2019)

McDonald, Gabrielle Kirk, 265–266

McMahon, Edward, 327–329

McNair, Arnold, 484

Mendelson, Maurice, 91–92, 143–144, 156

Merkouris, Panos, 287, 394, 397–398, 404, 407, 485, 486–487, 492, 505

Meta-law, 23, 234

Meta-meta law, 5, 23–24

Meta-norms, 292

Mexico

Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, 317

non-state armed groups (NSAGs) in, 317

MFN clause. See Most favoured nation (MFN) clause

Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua case. See Nicaragua case (ICJ 1986)

Military Tribunal for the Far East, 60

Mill, John Stuart, 68

Miller, David, 448

Minto, William, 83

Misinterpretation of CIL

acquiescence to, 59–60

actus reus and, 52–53

avoiding, 60–61

Bush Doctrine and, 57

change in CIL and, 47–48

‘CIL as path’ metaphor and, 41–42

consensus legitimising, 58

consequences of, 40, 47, 57–60

‘corrupt pedigree’, 40, 57–59

crystallisation of rules and, 48, 61

defined, 40

discovered in subsequent proceedings, 50–53

exitus acta probat, 49, 52

expectation and, 56–57

fallacious misinterpretation, 49–50, 53–55

fluidity of CIL and, 42, 58

head of state immunity and, 55–56

ICTY and, 50–55

identifying, 61

Joint Criminal Enterprise (JCE) and, 50–52

as lex ferenda, 40, 47–48

misinterpretation of rule as whole versus misinterpretation of opinio juris or state practice, 48–49

motivation, irrelevance of, 48

negligent misinterpretation, 49, 52–53

political motivation, 57

process and, 47

reasons for, 40

relation of opinio juris to state practice and, 53–55

relevance of, 61

revision of CIL versus, 43

‘self-fulfilling prophecy’, 57–58, 59–60, 61

subsequent state practice legitimising, 58

torture and, 57

Modal aspects of reality

generally, 205

certitudinal aspect, 222–223

enumeration of, 208

ethical aspect, 222–223

faith aspect, 222–223

jural aspect (See Jural aspect)

moral aspect, 222–223

psychic aspect, 214–215, 227

theory of entities compared, 211–212

Monaco, R., 153

Moral aspect, 222–223

Morelli, Gaetano, 422, 428

Most favoured nation (MFN) clause, 165, 167, 178–179, 181

Müller, F., 353

Murray, Daragh, 313

Necessity, 96

Negation versus belief, 79

Negligent misinterpretation, 49, 52–53

Nepal, non-state armed groups (NSAGs) in, 316

Netherlands

ICJ Statute Art. 38, application in, 147

on ILC Draft Conclusions, 46

VCLT, application in, 482–483

Network of reasons, state practice as, 382–385

New Critique of Theoretical Thought (Dooyeweerd), 205

NIAC. See Non-international armed conflict (NIAC)

Nicaragua case (ICJ 1986)

generally, 271, 283

enkapsis and, 220

interpretation of CIL in, 423

opinio juris and, 81, 133

rule of non-intervention in, 58

treaty interpretation and, 411

two-factor formula in, 44–46, 357

Nihilism, 39

Nollkaemper, A., 465

Nolte, Georg, 168, 397–398

Noncognitivism, 10

Nondomination, state consent and, 114, 118, 127–128

Non-international armed conflict (NIAC), 298, 309, 315–316

Non liquet, 63, 68, 71, 73, 74, 241

Non-manipulation principle, 107–108, 119, 123–124, 127

Non-refoulement, 106

Non-state actors, 84

Non-state armed groups (NSAGs), incorporation into CIL

generally, 298–299

arguments supporting, 301

compliance argument in favor of, 305–308

consequentialist approach, 318–319

current state of law, 299–300

equal application, implications for, 315–316–

Geneva Conventions Common Article 3 and, 298, 301

ICRC and, 299–300, 314, 319

ICTY and, 300, 314

ILC Draft Conclusions and, 300, 303–304

jus cogens and, 311–312

legal implications of, 312–318

legitimacy problem regarding, 301–305

negative practices of, 310–311

non-international armed conflict (NAIC) and, 309, 315–316

ownership argument in favor of, 305–308

policy-making perspective, 319

practice of NSAGs, based on, 309–312

protective standards, implications for, 316–318

rationales for, 301–308

ratione materiae and, 309–312

ratione personae and, 308–309

scope of, 308–312

selected NSAGs, 308–309

sovereignty and, 302–303

state practice and, 313

structure of CIL, implications for, 313–314

Normative nature of state practice, 370–371, 379–381, 392

Norms

approximately plausible empowerment norms (AppPENs), 5, 26–28

empowerment norms, 23

general versus particular norms, 396

justification based on, 386–388

meta-norms, 292

moral norms, state consent versus, 135–136

peremptory norms (See Jus cogens)

pre-existing norms, state consent and, 121

reasons versus, 382–385, 392

state practice based on, 386–388

substantive norms, 23

treaty norms, 485

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) (1993), 244–245

North Macedonia

contract law in, 470–471

interpretation of CIL in, 470–471

teleological interpretation in, 470–471

North Sea Continental Shelf case (ICJ 1969)

generally, 444

acceptance by majority of states and, 498–499

adoption of norms as creating CIL, 216

as authority for CIL, 442

identification of CIL in, 236, 239, 266

interpretation of CIL in, 44–46, 259, 357, 409–410, 422, 428

judicial discretion in, 264

silence and, 81

state motivation and, 71–72, 80

two-factor formula in, 44–46, 257, 259, 273, 357

NSAGs. See Non-state armed groups (NSAGs), incorporation into CIL

Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion (ICJ 1996)

interpretation of CIL in, 420–421

jus cogens and, 312

opinio juris and, 81, 336

treaty interpretation and, 411

Nuremberg Principles, 165, 504

‘Oceanic’ custom, 441–442

Oligarchies, 190

Ontological critiques of CIL, 183, 189–190, 201

‘Ontological’ custom, 442

Onuf, Nicholas, 96

‘Open-system’ approach, 84, 86

Opinio juris. See also specific topic

absence in (See Absence in CIL)

as conventional criterion, 387

convergence with state practice, 203–204

custom and, 88–90, 93–94, 400

differing interpretations of, 259

domestic courts and, 453

as epistemic tool, 19–20

in ICJ, 16–17

ICJ Statute Art. 38 and, 235, 277, 299, 399

ICRC and, 13, 267

ICTY, relation of opinio juris to state practice in, 53–55, 267–268

identification of, 88–89

ILC and, 181

ILC Draft Conclusions and, 130–131, 133

ILC Identification of Customary Law Project and, 203–204

inductive reasoning and, 256–257

as intellectual construct, 261

interpretation and, 101

as law-creating element, 18

as law-identifying element, 18

misinterpretation of versus misinterpretation of CIL, 48–49

in PCIJ, 16–17

psychic aspect and, 227

relation to state practice, 53–55

social reality, as grounded in, 29–31

state consent and, 129–133

state practice in absence of, 377

state practice versus, 13, 14

subjective nature of, 261–262

UN General Assembly Resolutions and, 81

universal methodology for ascertaining, myth of, 260–261

UN on, 417

WTO Appellate Body and, 296

Oppenheim, L., 115–116

Orakhelashvili, A., 394, 397–398, 407

Orthodoxy, culture of, 8

Ottawa Convention (1997), 317

Oxford University Press, 487–488

Pacta sunt servanda

crystallisation of rules and, 112

regulation of sources of CIL and, 142

state consent and, 125, 134

in VCLT, 112, 121, 125

Pal, Radhabinod, 60

Palombella, G., 203, 219, 225

Particular norms, 396

Path metaphor of CIL, 41–42

Paulus, Andreas, 93

PCIJ. See Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ)

Peat, D., 193

Pellet, A., 153

‘Penumbra of uncertainty’, 198

Peremptory norms. See Jus cogens

Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ)

argument from silence in, 81

custom and, 399–400

drafting of Statute, 231

interpretation of CIL in, 354–355

Lotus case (See Lotus case (PCIJ 1927))

opinio juris and, 16–17

oral agreements and, 350–351

SS Lotus (France v. Turkey) (See Lotus case (PCIJ 1927))

Statute Art. 38, 143–144, 152–153, 154, 158, 204

Persuasive argumentation, 63, 73–75, 85

Peters, A., 117

Petersen, N., 234

Petitio principii, 141–142, 148, 159

Petric, Ernest, 397–398

Philimore, Lord, 355

Philippines

non-state armed groups (NSAGs) in, 316

on UN General Assembly, 321

war crimes, prosecution of, 220

Piracy, 502–503

Pluralist ontology, 218–219

Popper, Karl, 65

Postema, Gerald, 374, 380, 381

Practical reasoning in interpretation of CIL, 370–371

Practice. See State practice

Pragmatic view of CIL

generally, 4, 5

‘astigmatic pragmatists’, 6–8

ILC Identification of Customary Law Project and, 4–5, 6–7

insufficiency of, 24

orthodoxy, culture of, 8

practice as solving theoretical problems, 7

problems with, 5–6

‘theory’, etymology of, 7

Precautionary principle in WTO Appellate Body, 286, 293–294, 296

Predictability, state consent and, 115, 118, 128

Prescription, 436–437

‘Presumed’ consent, 110–111, 129

Principle of Established Practices, 126

Proportionality principle in WTO Appellate Body, 283–284, 286, 287–288, 293, 294–295, 296

Prussia

interstate disputes involving in Weimar Republic, 511–513

preeminence of in German Empire, 512

Psychic aspect, 214–215, 227

Pure Theory of Law (Hart), 65

Quotability, 180–181

Rape, 408–409

Rawls, John, 118–119, 405

Raz, Joseph, 65, 383–384

Reductivism, 8–11

Refugee Convention (1951), 503

Regional custom, 74–75

Regulation of sources of international law

generally, 137–138, 139–140, 159–160

CIL as law on sources, 151–158

custom as source of rules arising out of general practice accepted as law, 141–151

custom in foro versus custom in pays, 154, 156–158, 159–160

domestic courts and, 146–151

ICJ Statute Art. 38 and, 137–138, 141, 143–154, 159

international courts and tribunals and, 143–144

normativity and, 159

pacta sunt servanda and, 142

petitio principii objections, 141–142, 148, 159

rule of recognition and, 155–157

skepticism regarding, 142

state practice and, 144–151

treaties and, 145

Relativism, 39

Religious freedom, 220

Reprisals, 267

‘Residual negative principle’, 25

Restrictive interpretation, 428–429

‘Reverse’ consistent interpretation, 368, 491–492

Ricci-Busatti, Arturo, 355

Roberts, Anthea, 310, 314, 332, 340, 463–464

Robinson, Patrick, 266

Rome (Ancient), XII Tables, 190–191

Rome Statute (1998), 163–164, 354, 503

Ross, Alf, 272

Roughan, Nicole, 340–341

‘Rulebook conception’ of CIL, 376

Rule of recognition, 69, 155–157, 372

Rules

crystallisation of (See Crystallisation of rules)

custom as source of rules arising out of general practice accepted as law, 141–151

effect of interpretation on practice, 192–193

examples, interaction with, 191

guidelines versus, 455

interpretation of, 192–194

practice versus, 191–192

states and, 188

The Rules of Interpretation of Customary International Law (TRICI-Law), 455, 466, 481, 504

Russia, on crimes against humanity, 164

Rwanda. See International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)

Ryngaert, Cedric, 368

‘Sacred trust of civilization,’, 221–222

Same sex relations, criminalisation of, 324–325

San Francisco Conference (1945), 321

San Remo Manual on International Law applicable to Armed Conflicts at Sea (1990), 503–504

Sassòli, Marco, 305, 309

Scanlon, T.M., 107, 119, 126

Scelle, Georges, 92, 157

Schmalenbach, K., 352

Schmitt, Carl, 5, 95

Schomburg, Wolfgang, 408

Schrödinger, Erwin, 87, 91

‘Schrödinger’s custom’, 88, 90–94, 101

Schwarzenberger, Georg, 69–70

Science, defined, 64

Scientific method, defined, 64

SCSL. See Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL)

Seabed Disputes Chamber, 248

Self-defence, 125

Self-determination

Chagos Advisory Opinion and, 243–244, 269–270, 278, 428, 442–449

crystallisation of rules and, 269–270, 444–445

defined, 443

states, limiting to, 448

UN Charter and, 443, 444, 448

UN General Assembly Resolutions and, 269–270, 428, 445

uti possidetis juris and, 447–448

‘Self-fulfilling prophecy,’ 57–58, 59–60, 61

Self-production, 30

Semiotics, 438

Sender, O., 287

Senegal

Universal Periodic Review Recommendations and, 328

violence against women in, 328

Separate legal order, CIL as, 27

Serbia, Constitution, 82

Shahabuddeen, Mohamed, 420–421

Shaw, Malcolm, 94, 96, 334

Sierra Leone

non-state armed groups (NSAGs) in, 316

Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) (See Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL))

Silence

absence distinguished, 75–76

argument from, 75–76, 78, 80–81

richness of, 80

Si loqui debuisset ac potuisset, 72–73

Simma, Bruno, 78, 93

Sinclair, I., 142

Single source of CIL, 27–28

Skillen, JW, 207, 212

Sivakumaran, Sandesh, 310, 314

Slavery, 106

Social reality, CIL grounded in, 29–31, 35–36, 38

Social science, law as

generally, 64, 67–68

falsification test and, 65

lack of testability, 66

lack of traditional method in, 65–66

narrow subject matter of law and, 65–66

normative nature of law and, 64–65, 66–67

quasi-logical nature of law and, 66, 67

Somek, A., 100

Sørensen, Max, 71–72, 80, 409–410

Sources of international law

assumptions regarding, 139

CIL as law on sources, 151–158

custom as source of legal obligation, 88–90

defined, 138

doctrine of sources, 30, 372

regulation of (See Regulation of sources of international law)

single source of CIL, 27–28

South Africa

apartheid in, 221–223

statutory interpretation in, 490

South Korea

comfort women and, 359, 364–365

constitution, 365

interpretation of CIL in, 359, 364–365, 367

on state practice, 150

Sovereignty

CIL and, 188

non-state armed groups (NSAGs) and, 302–303

state consent and, 117

state practice and, 387

Spain, Universal Periodic Review Recommendations and, 328–329

Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL)

actus reus in, 52–53

misinterpretation of CIL and, 52–53

non-state armed groups (NSAGs) and, 301

Taylor case, 52–53

Special Rapporteur, 14, 46, 142

Speech acts, 16

SPS Agreement (1995), 286, 293

SS Lotus (France v. Turkey).See Lotus case (PCIJ 1927)

State consent

challenges of CIL, 106, 108–109

‘chronological paradox’, 110

coerced consent to peace treaties, 122, 134

consent-based CIL as superior to treaties, 124–126

coordination for mutual gain and, 116–117

defence of, 108, 113–114, 127–128

diplomatic immunity and, 125

excusing conditions, 121–122

expectations, inducing, 119–120, 123–127

hypothetical consent, 106–107

ILC Draft Conclusions and, 111, 112, 130–131, 133

ILC Identification of Customary Law Project and, 108

impossibility of, 127

impracticality of, 127

individuals acting on behalf of state and, 109–110

jus cogens and, 106, 112, 123, 134–135, 136

material aspects of domain of valid treaties, 123

moral norms versus, 135–136

as necessary normative basis of CIL, 109–111

non-consent based CIL versus, 108, 112, 134

in non-democratic states, 118, 122

nondomination and, 114, 118, 127–128

non-manipulation principle, 107–108, 119, 123–124, 127

opinio juris and, 129–133

pacta sunt servanda and, 125, 134

predictability and, 115, 118, 128

pre-existing norms, 121

‘presumed’ consent, 110–111, 129

procedural aspects of becoming bound by consenting to treaties, 121–122

self-defence and, 125

sovereignty and, 117

status equality and, 115–116, 118, 128

strategic control over future and, 114–115, 118, 128

‘tacit’ consent, 110–111, 129

transaction costs and, 123

treaties, normative bases for legitimate authority of consent and, 118–120

VCLT and, 107, 110, 112, 121, 134

voluntariness, 111

Statehood, incidents of, 442

State immunity, 247, 425–427, 499–501

State interests

generally, 88

constitutionalist arguments regarding, 99–100

enumeration of, 96–97

existence of, 94–95

identification of CIL and, 100, 101

individuals acting on behalf of state and, 97–98

law creation and, 95–96

structural arguments regarding, 98–99

State official immunity, 493–499

State practice. See also specific topic

absence in (See Absence in CIL)

in absence of opinio juris, 377

container/content duality (See Container/content duality)

convergence with opinio juris, 203–204

defined, 13–14, 370–371

differing interpretations of, 259

domestic courts and, 453

double meaning of, 13

dual inquiry into existence of, 237

as epistemic tool, 19–20

habit distinguished, 376–377, 383

ICJ and, 376–377

ICJ Statute Art. 38 and, 144–151, 235

ICRC and, 13, 267

ICTY, relation of opinio juris to state practice in, 53–55, 267–268

identification of, 88–89

ILA on, 380–381

ILC and, 181, 376–377

ILC Draft Conclusions and, 58

ILC Identification of Customary Law Project and, 203–204

inductive reasoning and, 256–257

as intellectual construct, 261

international relations theory and, 94

invariable pattern and, 378–379

as law-creating element, 18

as law-identifying element, 18

legal obligation and, 377–378

misinterpretation of versus misinterpretation of CIL, 48–49

as network of reasons, 382–385

non-state armed groups (NSAGs) and, 313

normative nature of, 370, 371, 379–381, 392

norms, based on, 386–388

opinio juris versus, 13, 14

regulation of sources of international law and, 137–138, 144–151

relation to opinio juris, 53–55

social reality, as grounded in, 29–31

sovereignty and, 387

subjective nature of, 261–262

UN General Assembly Resolutions and, 269–270

universal methodology for ascertaining, myth of, 260–261

Universal Periodic Review Recommendations and, 332–335

usage distinguished, 376–377

verbal practice (See Verbal practice)

State responsibility. See Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (ARSIWA)

States

families compared, 187, 189

primacy of CIL over, 189

rules and, 188

Status equality, state consent and, 115–116, 118, 128

Steinberg, Richard, 95–96

Strategic control over future, state consent and, 114–115, 118, 128

Strategic formalism, 194–196, 202

Strathern, Margaret, 437–438

Strati, A., 145

Study Group on Content and Evolution of the Rules of Interpretation, 461

Suarez, F., 110–111

Submarine warfare, 215–216

Substantive norms, 23

Sudan

non-state armed groups (NSAGs) in, 317

People’s Liberation Army, 317

People’s Liberation Movement, 318

Sunstein, Cass R., 263–264

Sur, S., 138, 151–152, 153, 349, 369, 396, 401

Switzerland

autonomous interpretation of CIL in, 494

interpretation of CIL in, 360

state official immunity and, 494

on state practice, 150

war crimes and, 494

Syllogistic fallacy, 82–83

Systemic integration, 358–359, 368

Systemic interpretation, 475, 479, 491, 505

‘Tacit’ consent, 110–111, 129

Taliban, 317

Talmon, Stefan, 234, 332, 486

Tams, C. J., 158, 234

Tanaka, Kōtarō, 223, 259, 357

Targeted killing of terrorists, 466–470

Teleological argumentation, 74, 85

Teleological interpretation, 359, 365–366, 469–471, 475, 479

Temporality of CIL, 36–37

Territorial enkapsis, 213

Territorial tort exception, 242–243, 425–427

Teson, Fernando, 40, 58, 59, 343

Theory of entities

generally, 205, 226–227

founding function, 211

modal aspects of reality compared, 211–212

qualifying function, 211

Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (1973), 419–420

Third World Approaches to International Law (TWAIL), state consent and, 126, 128

Thirlway, Hugh, 192, 195–196, 302, 323

Timeline of CIL, 459

Tolkien, J. R. R., 435

Tomka, Peter, 85–86, 253

Tomuschat, C., 152

Toope, Stephen, 341

Torture, 106, 123, 179–180, 268, 324, 405

Torture Convention (1984), 268, 328

Trachtman, Joel, 335

Traditional method of ascertaining CIL

ICJ ignoring, 234

in international courts and tribunals, 235–239

two-factor formula, 235–236

Transaction costs, 123

Transparency in CIL, 434–435

Treaties. See also specific treaty

bilateral investment treaties (BITs), 244–245

CIL distinguished, 439–440

coerced consent to peace treaties, 122, 134

consent-based CIL as superior to, 124–126

container/content duality and, 372–373

context of, 412

domestic courts, treaty interpretation and, 453

evolutive interpretation of, 390–391

ICJ, treaty interpretation in, 43

ICJ locating CIL in, 242–244

ICJ Statute Art. 38, application of, 145

ICTY, treaty interpretation in, 407–409

identification and interpretation as distinct processes, 420–421

ILC Draft Conclusions and, 363

international courts and tribunals locating CIL in, 239–240, 241–246

interpretation of, 44, 432

interpretation of CIL, treaty interpretation distinguished, 394, 407–413, 429, 454, 456

intersection with CIL, 219

investor–state dispute settlement locating CIL in, 244–246

material aspects of domain of valid treaties, 123

modification of, 362–363

normative bases for legitimate authority of consent and, 118–120

procedural aspects of becoming bound by consenting to, 121–122

regulation of sources of international law and, 145

revision of, 362–363

travaux preparatoires, 44, 409–410, 411, 412–413

treaty norms, 485

UN Security Council Resolutions compared, 484

use of CIL in treaty interpretation, 410–412

WTO Appellate Body, treaty interpretation in, 279–282

Treaty norms, 485

Treaty of London (1930), 216

‘True positives’ of interpretation of CIL in domestic courts, 481–482, 492–504

Truyol y Serra, A., 138, 139

Tunkin, G. I., 139

Turkey, on crimes against humanity, 164

TWAIL (Third World Approaches to International Law), state consent and, 126, 128

Two-dimensional temporality of CIL, 36–37

Two-factor formula

ICJ and, 357

in ICJ Statute Art. 38, 44–46, 277, 399

identification of CIL and, 226, 235–236, 273–274

ILC and, 226, 235–236

in ILC Draft Conclusions, 259–260, 277, 322–323

interpretation of CIL and, 347, 348–349

in Jurisdictional Immunities of the State case, 44–46, 242–243

in Nicaragua case, 44–46, 357

in North Sea Continental Shelf case, 44–46, 257, 259, 273, 357

opinio juris (See Opinio juris)

state practice (See State practice)

Uganda, non-state armed groups (NSAGs) in, 316

Ulpian, 421–422

Ultra vires, legal fiction and, 198

Uncertain nature of CIL, 433–434

UNCLOS. See Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) (1982)

Unger, R., 39

Unilateral acts of states

ICJ on, 353

ILC on, 353, 456–457

interpretation of CIL and, 353, 456–457

Unilateral enkapsis, 213

Unitary nature of CIL, 313–314

United Kingdom

Chagos Islands and, 435–437 (See also Chagos Advisory Opinion (ICJ 2019))

statutory interpretation in, 490

United Nations. See also specific Convention

Charter (See United Nations Charter (1945))

Commission on Human Rights, 321, 327

General Assembly Resolutions (See United Nations General Assembly Resolutions)

Human Rights Council (See Human Rights Council (HRC))

on opinio juris, 417

Security Council Resolutions (See United Nations Security Council Resolutions)

Sixth Legal Committee, 175, 250, 252

Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, 419–420

United Nations Charter (1945)

adoption of, 144

ILC and, 169

Italian case law and, 366

obligations of members under, 484

self-defence and, 125

self-determination and, 443, 444, 448

UN Security Council Resolutions and, 484

use of force, prohibition on, 23

United Nations General Assembly Resolutions

Chagos Islands and, 243–244, 269–270, 436

custom and, 321–322

Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples (1960), 326

ICJ and, 322, 343

opinio juris and, 81

reprisals and, 267

self-determination and, 269–270, 428, 445

state practice and, 269–270

Universal Periodic Review Recommendations and, 327, 331–333

United Nations Security Council Resolutions

ICTY and, 264

Resolution 1244 (1999), 82

treaties compared, 484

UN Charter and, 484

VCLT and, 482–485

United States

authoritative written documents, interpreting CIL norms in, 502–503

autonomous interpretation of CIL in, 494–495

Bush Doctrine, 57

Chagos Advisory Opinion and, 443

corporate liability, 489–490

Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act, 495

Germany, occupation of, 516

ICJ Statute Art. 38, application in, 146–147

identification of CIL versus interpretation of CIL in, 489–490

interpretation of CIL in, 360

Offenses Clause, 489

piracy and, 502–503

state official immunity and, 494–495

statutory interpretation in, 490

torture and, 57

Universal Periodic Review Recommendations

generally, 321, 322

categories of, 327–329

child marriage and, 342–343

communication of state positions on, 333–334

constructivist interpretation of CIL and, 344

corporal punishment and, 337–338

criticisms of framework, 343–344

domestic violence and, 320–321

empiricist interpretation of CIL and, 344

ILC and, 343

number of, 327

obligation and, 340–343

‘paradigm shift’ in, 343

quantification of, 336–340

rationalist interpretation of CIL and, 344

realist interpretation of CIL and, 344

rejection of, 335

rules, accepted Recommendations as, 336–340

state behaviour, effect on, 326–332

state practice, accepted Recommendations and, 332–335

UN General Assembly Resolutions and, 327, 331–333

as verbal practice, 333

Unwritten nature of CIL, objection to interpretability based on, 349–353, 399, 456–457

Uruguay

corporal punishment and, 338

Universal Periodic Review Recommendations and, 338

Usage, state practice distinguished, 376–377

Use of force

ICJ and, 220

prohibition on, 23

United Nations Charter, prohibition under, 23

Usus, 15–17, 53–54, 214–215, 267, 380

Uti possidetis juris, 23, 74, 437, 439, 447–448, 457–458

Ut res magis valeat quam pereat, 89, 281–282, 357, 360, 365

van Steenberghe, Raphaël, 311

van Woudenberg, 204, 211

de Vattel, Emer, 95, 421–422

VCLT. See Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) (1969)

Verbal practice

generally, 11, 149

acceptance of, 12–13

‘battlefield practice’ versus, 12

custom and, 14–16

doctrinal objections to, 13–14

ICRC on, 12

ILC and, 12, 13

speech acts and, 16

theoretical objections to, 14–16

Universal Periodic Review Recommendations as, 333

Verdier, P. H., 52

Verdross, Alfred, 27, 153, 158

Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (VCCR) (1961), 496

Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (VCDR) (1961), 498

Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) (1969)

generally, 432, 454, 456, 485

applicability beyond treaties covered by, 482–485

Austria and, 527, 529

codification of rules of interpretation, 402, 407, 415

construction versus interpretation, 403

crystallisation of rules and, 42

domestic courts and, 462, 494, 495–496, 497, 500, 501, 502, 503

evolutive interpretation and, 391

identification of CIL versus interpretation of CIL, 487

ILC and, 162, 168, 179

interpretation of CIL and, 42, 350, 364, 397

legal interpretation and, 357

oral agreements and, 350–352

pacta sunt servanda and, 112, 121, 134

state consent and, 107, 110, 112, 121, 134

successive treaties, application of, 42–43

techniques of interpretation and, 421

UN Security Council Resolutions and, 482–485

use of CIL in treaty interpretation, 411

WTO Appellate Body and, 279–282, 286, 287, 295

Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or between International Organizations (not in force), 422–423, 483

Vietnam

National Liberation Front, 305

non-state armed groups (NSAGs) in, 305

Villiger, Mark, 12–13

Virally, M., 140

de Vitoria, Francisco, 223

Voeten, E., 52

Vohrah, Lal Chand, 265–266

Voyiakis, Emmanuel, 340

Waibel, Michael, 263

War crimes, 220, 494

Watts, A., 141, 148, 153

Weimar Republic

generally, 508

application of CIL in, 510–511, 513–514, 516, 528

Baden, interstate disputes involving, 512–513

Bremen, interstate disputes involving, 511–512

Brunswick, interstate disputes involving, 512

Constitution of 1919, 509–516, 517, 526–527, 528

friendly co-existence of states in, 514–516

historical background, 509

interstate disputes in, 511–514

limited sovereignty of states in, 514–515

Lübeck, interstate disputes involving, 512

Mecklenburg–Strelitz, interstate disputes involving, 512

Prussia, interstate disputes involving, 511–513

Reichsverwaltungsgericht (Fedreal Administrative Court) (proposed), 510

Staastgerichtshof für das deutsche Reich (RStGH) (Federal State Court), 508, 509–516, 528

Thuringia, interstate disputes involving, 512

Württemberg, interstate disputes involving, 512–513

Weiss, Edith Brown, 172

West Germany

generally, 508

application of CIL in, 521–522, 523–524, 528

Baden–Württemburg, creation of, 516–519

Basic Law, 517–520, 526–527

Bavaria, interstate disputes involving, 520–521

Bundesverfassungsgericht (BVerfG) (Federal Constitutional Court), 508, 516–524, 528

Coburg, interstate dispute regarding, 520–521

as continuation of Reich, 523

creation of states in, 517

East Germany, treaty with, 522–524

French occupation zone, 516

interstate disputes in, 516–521

Thuringia, interstate disputes involving, 520–521

US occupation zone, 516

Windsor, M., 193

Withhold/deny fallacy, 79

Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 62–63, 191

Wolff, Christian, 98–99

Wolfke, Karol, 15, 299

Wood, Michael C.

on assertion, 287

on identification of CIL, 233–234

ILC and, 168

law-identification versus law-creating, 24, 46

pragmatic view of CIL and, 4, 5–8

on regulation of sources of CIL, 138, 142

on VCLT, 484

verbal practice and, 12–13, 14

World Trade Organization (WTO) Appellate Body

generally, 278–279, 296–297

absence of decision on CIL in, 249

Agreement on Textiles (1995), 294

Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) (1995), 286, 293

ARSIWA and, 282–285, 286, 287

assertion versus identification, 287

‘boundaries’ of interpretation of CIL in, 292–296

Brazil – Desiccated Coconut case, 281

China—Publications and Audiovisual Products case, 282

de facto precedent, problem of adopting, 247

Dispute Settlement Body, 172–173

Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU), 279–280, 281, 289, 295

EC – Hormones case, 282, 286, 293

EC and Certain Member States – Large Civil Aircraft case, 282, 285, 286

good faith principle in, 295

hesitancy in identification of CIL in, 286–287

ICJ as authority for CIL in, 247, 280, 283, 287, 296

interpretation of CIL in, 458

Japan – Alcoholic Beverages II case, 281–282

jurisdiction, 278, 289–292

limited areas of identification of CIL in, 285–286

methodology of identification of CIL in, 279

opinio juris and, 296

precautionary principle in, 249, 286, 293–294, 296

proportionality principle in, 283–284, 286, 287–288, 293, 294–295, 296

SPS Agreement (1995), 286, 293

state responsibility and, 282–285

treaty interpretation in, 279–282

trends in identification of CIL in, 285–288

US – Carbon Steel case, 281

US – Cotton Yarn case, 287–288, 294

US – Definitive Anti-Dumping and Countervailing Duties on Certain Products from China case, 284–285, 286

US – Gasoline case, 280–281

US – Line Pipe case, 283–284, 294–295

US – Softwood Lumber IV case, 281

use for interpretation versus application of CIL in, 288–289, 292–296

VCLT and, 279–282, 286, 287, 295

WTO Appellate Body. See World Trade Organization (WTO) Appellate Body

Yugoslavia. See International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY)

Yusuf, Abdulqawi Ahmed, 78

Zander, J., 294

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