1 - Origin, Legacy and Continuity of Turkish Paramilitary Formations

Summary

Introduction

The historical background of Turkish paramilitarism can be divided into three distinct periods: the Hamidian and CUP periods during the late Ottoman Empire (1890–1918), the Republic (or Kemalist) period (1923–50) and the multi-party period (1950s–90s). Manifestly, there was a long tradition and continuity in terms of the emergence and mobilisation of paramilitary forces from the late Ottoman Empire to 1990s Turkey. Thus, this chapter addresses the question of how the Turkish state performed and transformed paramilitary policies before the 1990s, and how this transformation and legacy influenced the formation of paramilitary organisations in the 1990s.

The usage of paramilitary forces varied according to their origins and functions during these periods. In the late Ottoman Empire, the paramilitary forces were used by the state as death squads and as auxiliary forces to the regular army, mainly to prevent the rise of nationalist movements, which were considered a threat in the Balkans and the eastern part of the Empire. During the Kemalist, or single-party dictatorship period, paramilitary forces were again used as death squads (particularly in the early Republic) and as auxiliary forces (including pro-government Kurdish tribes and informers). They were particularly used to eliminate opposition (to the Republic or to Mustafa Kemal). Then, during the multi-party period, the state used paramilitary forces as death squads, auxiliary forces and vigilantes against non-Muslim communities, the left-wing opposition, Kurdish leftist and nationalist movements, and against Alevi civilians. The main purpose of paramilitary forces during this period was to prevent the rise of Communist movements and Kurdish organisations.

Consequently, I argue that although the Turkish state was governed by different regimes (the period of the late Ottoman Empire with the sultanate, the Kemalist or single-party period with a dictatorship and the multi-party democratic period with a premiership), there was a continuity in the nature and function of Turkish paramilitarism across these periods. I discuss paramilitary groups during these periods, particularly in the context of the political parties, organised crime, tribes and the ethno-religious minority policies of the state. In addition, I emphasise the examples of the Kurdish provinces, to understand if and how the effects of these organisations continued into the 1990s.