Functional imaging of substance abuse

doi:10.1017/CBO9780511782091.031

30 - Functional imaging of substance abuse

from Section V - Substance Abuse

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 10 January 2011

Omar M. Mahmood and

Susan F. Tapert

Edited by

Martha E. Shenton and

Bruce I. Turetsky

Show author details

Omar M. Mahmood: Affiliation:
Psychology Service VA San Diego Healthcare System and Department of Psychiatry University of California, San Diego San Diego, CA, USA
Susan F. Tapert: Affiliation:
Psychology Service VA San Diego Healthcare System and Department of Psychiatry University of California San Diego San Diego, CA, USA
Martha E. Shenton: Affiliation:
VA Boston Healthcare System and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School
Bruce I. Turetsky: Affiliation:
University of Pennsylvania

Book contents

Get access

Summary

Introduction

Overview of substance abuse

Substance use disorders (SUD; substance abuse or dependence) are prevalent in both adult and adolescent populations. It is estimated that 8% of the US population aged 12 and older currently uses some formof illicit drug, and that this percentage is slightly higher among youths aged 12–17 (9.5%) (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), 2008). The most commonly used substance is alcohol, and the most frequently used illicit drug is cannabis, followed by non-prescribed medications, cocaine, methamphetamines, and hallucinogens. Given their prevalence and deleterious physical, psychosocial, and financial effects, SUDs have become a major focus of research, with a particular recent emphasis on elucidating the mechanisms of addiction-related dysfunction and implications for treatment.

SUDs, as defined in the DSM-IV, include substance dependence and substance abuse. Substance dependence refers to recurrent use of a substance resulting in a clinically impairing pattern of repeatedly experiencing at least 3 of the following 7 criteria within a 12-month period: (1) tolerance; (2) use to relieve withdrawal; (3) using larger amounts or for more time than intended; (4) inability to cut down or quit; (5) spending excessive time obtaining, using, or recovering from the substance; (6) giving up important activities due to the substance use; and (7) continued use despite negative consequences, such as in medical or psychological health.

Keywords

alcohol use disorder cannabinoid receptors cognitive task opioid dependence neural networks marijuana fMRI functional imaging substance abuse

Type: Chapter
Information: Understanding Neuropsychiatric Disorders
Insights from Neuroimaging
, pp. 429 - 445

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511782091.031 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

,American Psychiatric Association. 1994. DSM-IV: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders – 4th Edition. Washington, DC: APA.

Beatty, W W, Katzung, V M, Moreland, V J and Nixon, S J. 1995. Neuropsychological performance of recently abstinent alcoholics and cocaine abusers. Drug Alcohol Depend 37, 247–53.Google Scholar

Berry, J, Gorp, W G, Herzberg, D S, et al. 1993. Neuropsychological deficits in abstinent cocaine abusers: Preliminary findings after two weeks of abstinence. Drug Alcohol Depend 32, 231–7.Google Scholar

Blake, J and Smith, A. 1997. Effects of smoking and smoking deprivation on the articulatory loop of working memory. Hum Psychopharmacol 12, 259–64.Google Scholar

Block, R I, O'Leary, D S, Hichwa, R D, et al. 2000. Cerebellar hypoactivity in frequent marijuana users. Neuroreport 11, 749–53.Google Scholar

Brody, A L, Mandelkern, M A, Olmstead, R E, et al. 2007. Neural substrates of resisting craving during cigarette cue exposure. Biol Psychiatry 62, 642–51.Google Scholar

Büttner, A, Mall, G, Penning, R and Weis, S. 2000. The neuropathology of heroin abuse. Foren Sci Int 113, 435–42.Google Scholar

Chang, L and Chronicle, E P. 2007. Functional imaging studies in cannabis users. The Neuroscientist 13, 422.Google Scholar

Chang, L, Ernst, T, Speck, O, et al. 2002. Perfusion MRI and computerized cognitive test abnormalities in abstinent methamphetamine users. Psychiatry Res Neuroimag 114, 65–79.Google Scholar

Chang, L, Yakupov, R, Cloak, C and Ernst, T. 2006. Marijuana use is associated with a reorganized visual–attention network and cerebellar hypoactivation. Brain 129, 1096.Google Scholar

Cowan, R L. 2007. Neuroimaging research in human MDMA users: A review. Psychopharmacology 189, 539–56.Google Scholar

Daumann, J, Fimm, B, Willmes, K, Thron, A and Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E. 2003a. Cerebral activation in abstinent ecstasy (MDMA) users during a working memory task: A functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study. Cogn Brain Res 16, 479–87.Google Scholar

Daumann, J, Fischermann, T, Heekeren, K, Henke, K, Thron, A and Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E. 2005. Memory-related hippocampal dysfunction in poly-drug ecstasy (3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) users. Psychopharmacology 180, 607–11.Google Scholar

Daumann, J, Fischermann, T, Heekeren, K, Thron, A and Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E. 2004. Neural mechanisms of working memory in ecstasy (MDMA) users who continue or discontinue ecstasy and amphetamine use: Evidence from an 18-month longitudinal functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Biol Psychiatry 56, 349–55.Google Scholar

Daumann, J, Schnitker, R, Weidemann, J, Schnell, K, Thron, A and Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E. 2003b. Neural correlates of working memory in pure and polyvalent ecstasy (MDMA) users. Neuroreport 14, 1983.Google Scholar

David, S P, Munafn, M R, Johansen-Berg, H, et al. 2005. Ventral striatum/nucleus accumbens activation to smoking-related pictorial cues in smokers and nonsmokers: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Biol Psychiatry 58, 488–94.Google Scholar

Davis, P E, Liddiard, H and McMillan, T M. 2002. Neuropsychological deficits and opiate abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend 67, 105–08.Google Scholar

Desmond, J E, Chen, S H A, DeRosa, E, Pryor, M R, Pfefferbaum, A and Sullivan, E V. 2003. Increased frontocerebellar activation in alcoholics during verbal working memory: An fMRI study. Neuroimage 19, 1510–20.Google Scholar

Due, D L, Huettel, S A, Hall, W G and Rubin, D C. 2002. Activation in mesolimbic and visuospatial neural circuits elicited by smoking cues: Evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging. Am J Psychiatry 159, 954–60.Google Scholar

Forman, S D, Dougherty, G G, Casey, B J, et al. 2004. Opiate addicts lack error-dependent activation of rostral anterior cingulate. Biol Psychiatry 55, 531–7.Google Scholar

Franklin, T R, Acton, P D, Maldjian, J A, et al. 2002. Decreased gray matter concentration in the insular, orbitofrontal, cingulate, and temporal cortices of cocaine patients. Biol Psychiatry 51, 134–42.Google Scholar

Fu, L P, Bi, G H, Zou, Z T, et al. 2008. Impaired response inhibition function in abstinent heroin dependents: An fMRI study. Neurosci Lett 438, 322–6.Google Scholar

Gallinat, J, Meisenzahl, E, Jacobsen, L K, et al. 2006. Smoking and structural brain deficits: A volumetric MR investigation. Eur J Neurosci 24, 1744–50.Google Scholar

Garavan, H, Pankiewicz, J, Bloom, A, et al. 2000. Cue-induced cocaine craving: Neuroanatomical specificity for drug users and drug stimuli. Am J Psychiatry 157, 1789–98.Google Scholar

George, M S, Anton, R F, Bloomer, C, et al. 2001. Activation of prefrontal cortex and anterior thalamus in alcoholic subjects on exposure to alcohol-specific cues. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58, 345–52.Google Scholar

Gilman, J M and Hommer, D W. 2008. Modulation of brain response to emotional images by alcohol cues in alcohol-dependent patients. Addiction Biol 13, 423–34.Google Scholar

Goldstein, R Z, Tomasi, D, Rajaram, S, et al. 2007. Role of the anterior cingulate and medial orbitofrontal cortex in processing drug cues in cocaine addiction. Neuroscience 144, 1153–9.Google Scholar

Gruber, S A and Yurgelun-Todd, D A. 2005. Neuroimaging of marijuana smokers during inhibitory processing: A pilot investigation. Cogn Brain Res 23, 107–18.Google Scholar

Grüsser, S M, Wrase, J, Klein, S, et al. 2004. Cue-induced activation of the striatum and medial prefrontal cortex is associated with subsequent relapse in abstinent alcoholics. Psychopharmacology 175, 296–302.Google Scholar

Heinz, A, Wrase, J, Kahnt, T, et al. 2007. Brain activation elicited by affectively positive stimuli is associated with a lower risk of relapse in detoxified alcoholic subjects. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 31, 1138–47.Google Scholar

Hester, R and Garavan, H. 2004. Executive dysfunction in cocaine addiction: Evidence for discordant frontal, cingulate, and cerebellar activity. J Neurosci 24, 11 017–22.Google Scholar

Jacobsen, L K, Mencl, W E, Constable, R T, Westerveld, M and Pugh, K R. 2007a. Impact of smoking abstinence on working memory neurocircuitry in adolescent daily tobacco smokers. Psychopharmacology 193, 557–66.Google Scholar

Jacobsen, L K, Mencl, W E, Pugh, K R, Skudlarski, P and Krystal, J H. 2004a. Preliminary evidence of hippocampal dysfunction in adolescent MDMA (“ecstasy”) users: Possible relationship to neurotoxic effects. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 173, 383–90.Google Scholar

Jacobsen, L K, Mencl, W E, Westerveld, M and Pugh, K R. 2004b. Impact of cannabis use on brain function in adolescents. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1021, 384–90.Google Scholar

Jacobsen, L K, Pugh, K R, Constable, R T, Westerveld, M and Mencl, W E. 2007b. Functional correlates of verbal memory deficits emerging during nicotine withdrawal in abstinent adolescent cannabis users. Biol Psychiatry 61, 31–40.Google Scholar

Jaffe, J H, Cascella, N G, Kumor, K M and Sherer, M A. 1989. Cocaine-induced cocaine craving. Psychopharmacology 97, 59–64.Google Scholar

Jager, G, Win, M M L, Tweel, I, et al. 2008. Assessment of cognitive brain function in ecstasy users and contributions of other drugs of abuse: Results from an fMRI study. Neuropsychopharmacology 33, 247.Google Scholar

Jager, G, Kahn, R S, Brink, W, Ree, J M and Ramsey, N F. 2006. Long-term effects of frequent cannabis use on working memory and attention: An fMRI study. Psychopharmacology 185, 358–68.Google Scholar

Jager, G, Hell, H H, Win, M M L, et al. 2007. Effects of frequent cannabis use on hippocampal activity during an associative memory task. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 17, 289–97.Google Scholar

Kanayama, G, Rogowska, J, Pope, H G, Gruber, S A and Yurgelun Todd, D A. 2004. Spatial working memory in heavy cannabis users: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Psychopharmacology 176, 239–47.Google Scholar

Kaufman, J N, Ross, T J, Stein, E A and Garavan, H. 2003. Cingulate hypoactivity in cocaine users during a GO-NOGO task as revealed by event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging. J Neurosci 23, 7839–43.Google Scholar

Kivisaari, R, Kähkönen, S, Puuskari, V, Jokela, O, Rapeli, P and Autti, T. 2004. Magnetic resonance imaging of severe, long-term, opiate-abuse patients without neurologic symptoms may show enlarged cerebrospinal spaces but no signs of brain pathology of vascular origin. Arch Med Res 35, 395–400.Google Scholar

Kosten, T R, Scanley, B E, Tucker, K A, et al. 2006. Cue-induced brain activity changes and relapse in cocaine-dependent patients. Neuropsychopharmacology 31, 644–50.Google Scholar

Langleben, D D, Ruparel, K, Elman, I, et al. 2008. Acute effect of methadone maintenance dose on brain fMRI response to heroin-related cues. Am J Psychiatry 165, 390.Google Scholar

Lee, J H, Lim, Y, Wiederhold, B K and Graham, S J. 2005. A functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study of cue-induced smoking craving in virtual environments. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedb 30, 195–204.Google Scholar

Lee, T M C, Zhou, W, Luo, X, Yuen, K S L, Ruan, X and Weng, X. 2005. Neural activity associated with cognitive regulation in heroin users: A fMRI study. Neurosci Lett 382, 211–6.Google Scholar

Lundqvist, T, Jonsson, S and Warkentin, S. 2001. Frontal lobe dysfunction in long-term cannabis users. Neurotoxicol Teratol 23, 437–43.Google Scholar

Matochik, J A, Eldreth, D A, Cadet, J L and Bolla, K I. 2005. Altered brain tissue composition in heavy marijuana users. Drug Alcohol Depend 77, 23–30.Google Scholar

McBride, D, Barrett, S P, Kelly, J T, Aw, A and Dagher, A. 2006. Clinical research effects of expectancy and abstinence on the neural response to smoking cues in cigarette smokers: An fMRI study. Neuropsychopharmacology 31, 2728–38.Google Scholar

McClernon, F J, Hiott, F B, Huettel, S A and Rose, J E. 2005. Abstinence-induced changes in self-report craving correlate with event-related fMRI responses to smoking cues. Neuropsychopharmacology 30, 1940.Google Scholar

McClernon, F J, Kozink, R V and Rose, J E. 2007. Individual differences in nicotine dependence, withdrawal symptoms, and sex predict transient fMRI-BOLD responses to smoking cues. Neuropsychopharmacology 33, 2148.Google Scholar

Medina, K L, Hanson, K L, Schweinsburg, A D, Cohen-Zion, M, Nagel, B J and Tapert, S F. 2007. Neuropsychological functioning in adolescent marijuana users: Subtle deficits detectable after a month of abstinence. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 13, 807–20.Google Scholar

Moeller, F G, Steinberg, J L, Dougherty, D M, Narayana, P A, Kramer, L A and Renshaw, P F. 2004. Functional MRI study of working memory in MDMA users. Psychopharmacology 177, 185–94.Google Scholar

Myrick, H, Anton, R F, Li, X, et al. 2004. Differential brain activity in alcoholics and social drinkers to alcohol cues: Relationship to craving. Neuropsychopharmacology 29, 393–402.Google Scholar

Nestor, L, Roberts, G, Garavan, H and Hester, R. 2008. Deficits in learning and memory: Parahippocampal hyperactivity and frontocortical hypoactivity in cannabis users. Neuroimage 40, 1328–39.Google Scholar

Okuyemi, K S, Powell, J N, Savage, C R, et al. 2006. Enhanced cue-elicited brain activation in African American compared with Caucasian smokers: An fMRI study. Addiction Biol 11, 97–106.Google Scholar

Padula, C B, Schweinsburg, A D and Tapert, S F. 2007. Spatial working memory performance and fMRI activation interactions in abstinent adolescent marijuana users. Psychol Addict Behav 21, 478.Google Scholar

Paulus, M P, Hozack, N, Frank, L, Brown, G G and Schuckit, M A. 2003. Decision making by methamphetamine-dependent subjects is associated with error-rate-independent decrease in prefrontal and parietal activation. Biol Psychiatry 53, 65–74.Google Scholar

Paulus, M P, Hozack, N E, Zauscher, B E, et al. 2002. Behavioral and functional neuroimaging evidence for prefrontal dysfunction in methamphetamine-dependent subjects. Neuropsychopharmacology 26, 53–63.Google Scholar

Paulus, M P, Tapert, S F and Schuckit, M A. 2005. Neural activation patterns of methamphetamine-dependent subjects during decision making predict relapse. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62, 761–8.Google Scholar

Payer, D E, Lieberman, M D, Monterosso, J R, Xu, J, Fong, T W and London, E D. 2007. Differences in cortical activity between methamphetamine-dependent and healthy individuals performing a facial affect matching task. Drug Alcohol Depend 93, 93–102.Google Scholar

Pfefferbaum, A, Desmond, J E, Galloway, C, Menon, V, Glover, G H and Sullivan, E V. 2001. Reorganization of frontal systems used by alcoholics for spatial working memory: An fMRI study. Neuroimage 14, 7–20.Google Scholar

Pfefferbaum, A, Sullivan, E V, Mathalon, D H and Lim, K O. 1997. Frontal lobe volume loss observed with magnetic resonance imaging in older chronic alcoholics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 21, 521–9.Google Scholar

Pillay, S S, Rogowska, J, Kanayama, G, et al. 2008. Cannabis and motor function: fMRI changes following 28 days of discontinuation. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 16, 22.Google Scholar

Pillay, S S, Rogowska, J, Kanayama, G, et al. 2004. Neurophysiology of motor function following cannabis discontinuation in chronic cannabis smokers: An fMRI study. Drug Alcohol Depend 76, 261–71.Google Scholar

Pope, H G and Yurgelun-Todd, D. 1996. The residual cognitive effects of heavy marijuana use in college students. JAMA 275, 521–7.Google Scholar

Pope, J H G, Gruber, A J, Hudson, J I, Huestis, M A and Yurgelun-Todd, D. 2001. Neuropsychological performance in long-term cannabis users. Am Med Assoc 58, 909–15.Google Scholar

Potter, A S and Newhouse, P A. 2008. Acute nicotine improves cognitive deficits in young adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 88, 407–17.Google Scholar

Quickfall, J and Crockford, D. 2006. Brain neuroimaging in cannabis use: A review. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 18, 318.Google Scholar

Ray, R, Loughead, J, Wang, Z, et al. 2008. Neuroimaging, genetics and the treatment of nicotine addiction. Behav Brain Res 193, 159–69.Google Scholar

Risinger, R C, Salmeron, B J, Ross, T J, et al. 2005. Neural correlates of high and craving during cocaine self-administration using BOLD fMRI. Neuroimage 26, 1097–108.Google Scholar

Rose, J S, Branchey, M, Buydens-Branchey, L, et al. 1996. Cerebral perfusion in early and late opiate withdrawal: A technetium-99m-HMPAO SPECT study. Psychiatry Res Neuroimag 67, 39–47.Google Scholar

Rosenbloom, M J, Sullivan, E V, Sassoon, S A, et al. 2007. Alcoholism, HIV infection, and their comorbidity: Factors affecting self-rated health-related quality of life. J Stud Alcohol 68, 115–25.Google Scholar

Salloum, J B, Ramchandani, V A, Bodurka, J, et al. 2007. Blunted rostral anterior cingulate response during a simplified decoding task of negative emotional facial expressions in alcoholic patients. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 31, 1490–504.Google Scholar

Schneider, F, Habel, U, Wagner, M, et al. 2001. Subcortical correlates of craving in recently abstinent alcoholic patients. Am J Psychiatry 158, 1075–83.Google Scholar

Schweinsburg, A D, Nagel, B J, Schweinsburg, B C, Park, A, Theilmann, R J and Tapert, S F. 2008. Abstinent adolescent marijuana users show altered fMRI response during spatial working memory. Psychiatry Res Neuroimag 163, 40–51.Google Scholar

Scott, J C, Woods, S P, Matt, G E, et al. 2007. Neurocognitive effects of methamphetamine: A critical review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychol Rev 17, 275–97.Google Scholar

Sinha, R, Lacadie, C, Skudlarski, P, et al. 2005. Neural activity associated with stress-induced cocaine craving: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 183, 171–80.Google Scholar

Snyder, F R, Davis, F C and Henningfield, J E. 1989. The tobacco withdrawal syndrome: Performance decrements assessed on a computerized test battery. Drug Alcohol Depend 23, 259–66.Google Scholar

Solowij, N and Battisti, R. 2008. The chronic effects of cannabis on memory in humans: A review. Curr Drug Abuse Rev 1, 81–98.Google Scholar

Solowij, N, Michie, P T and Fox, A M. 1995. Differential impairments of selective attention due to frequency and duration of cannabis use. Biol Psychiatry 37, 731–9.Google Scholar

Strickland, T L. 1993. Cerebral perfusion and neuropsychological consequences of chronic cocaine use. Am Neuropsych Assoc 5, 419–27.Google Scholar

,Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). 2008. Results from the 2007 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings (NSDUH Series H-34, DHHS Publication No. SMA 08-4343). Rockville, MD.

Swan, G E and Lessov-Schlaggar, C N. 2007. The effects of tobacco smoke and nicotine on cognition and the brain. Neuropsychol Rev 17, 259–73.Google Scholar

Tanner-Smith, E E. 2006. Pharmacological content of tablets sold as “ecstasy”: Results from an online testing service. Drug Alcohol Depend 83, 247–54.Google Scholar

Tapert, S F, Brown, G G, Baratta, M V and Brown, S A. 2004a. fMRI BOLD response to alcohol stimuli in alcohol dependent young women. Addict Behav 29, 33–50.Google Scholar

Tapert, S F, Brown, G G, Kindermann, S, Cheung, E H, Frank, L R and Brown, S A. 2001. fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 25, 236–45.Google Scholar

Tapert, S F, Cheung, E H, Brown, G G, et al. 2003. Neural response to alcohol stimuli in adolescents with alcohol use disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 60, 727–35.Google Scholar

Tapert, S F, Schweinsburg, A D, Barlett, V C, et al. 2004b. Blood oxygen level dependent response and spatial working memory in adolescents with alcohol use disorders. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 28, 1577–86.Google Scholar

Tapert, S F, Schweinsburg, A, Drummond, S, et al. 2007. Functional MRI of inhibitory processing in abstinent adolescent marijuana users. Psychopharmacology 194, 173–83.Google Scholar

Thompson, P M, Hayashi, K M, Simon, S L, et al. 2004. Structural abnormalities in the brains of human subjects who use methamphetamine. J Neurosci 24, 6028–36.Google Scholar

Toomey, R, Lyons, M J, Eisen, S A, et al. 2003. A twin study of the neuropsychological consequences of stimulant abuse. Am Med Assoc 60, 303–10.Google Scholar

Volkow, N D, Chang, L, Wang, G J, et al. 2001. Association of dopamine transporter reduction with psychomotor impairment in methamphetamine abusers. Am J Psychiatry 158, 377–82.Google Scholar

Volkow, N D, Fowler, J S, Wang, G J, et al. 1993. Decreased dopamine D2 receptor availability is associated with reduced frontal metabolism in cocaine abusers. Synapse 14(2), 169–77.Google Scholar

Wexler, B E, Gottschalk, C H, Fulbright, R K, et al. 2001. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of cocaine craving. Am J Psychiatry 158, 86–95.Google Scholar

Wrase, J, Grüsser, S M, Klein, S, et al. 2002. Development of alcohol-associated cues and cue-induced brain activation in alcoholics. Eur Psychiatry 17, 287–91.Google Scholar

Xiao, Z, Lee, T, Zhang, J X, et al. 2006. Thirsty heroin addicts show different fMRI activations when exposed to water-related and drug-related cues. Drug Alcohol Depend 83, 157–62.Google Scholar

Xu, J, Mendrek, A, Cohen, M S, et al. 2005. Brain activity in cigarette smokers performing a working memory task: Effect of smoking abstinence. Biol Psychiatry 58, 143–50.Google Scholar

Xu, J, Mendrek, A, Cohen, M S, et al. 2006. Effects of acute smoking on brain activity vary with abstinence in smokers performing the N-Back Task: A preliminary study. Psychiatry Res Neuroimag 148, 103–09.Google Scholar

Xu, J, Mendrek, A, Cohen, M S, et al. 2007. Effect of cigarette smoking on prefrontal cortical function in nondeprived smokers performing the stroop task. Neuropsychopharmacology 32, 1421–8.Google Scholar

Xu, P, Jiang, Y, Geng, D, Wang, Y and Lu, G. 2008. A fMRI Study on Electroacupuncture Intervening Heroin Abstainers' Cognitive Attention. Paper presented at the 7th Asian-Pacific Conference on Medical and Biological Engineering, Beijing, China.

Yücel, M, Lubman, D I, Harrison, B J, et al. 2007. A combined spectroscopic and functional MRI investigation of the dorsal anterior cingulate region in opiate addiction. Mol Psychiatry 12, 691–702.Google Scholar

Yurgelun-Todd, D, Gruber, A J, Hanson, R A, Baird, A A, Renshaw, P F and Pope, H G 1999. Residual Effects of Marijuana Use: A fMRI Study. Paper presented at the Problems of Drug Dependence 1998: Proceedings of the 60th Annual Scientific Meeting of the College on Problems of Drug Dependence, Bethesda, MD.

Zakzanis, K K, Campbell, Z and Jovanovski, D. 2007. The neuropsychology of ecstasy (MDMA) use: A quantitative review. Hum Psychopharmacol 22, 427–35.Google Scholar

Book contents

30 - Functional imaging of substance abuse

Summary

Keywords

Access options

References

Save book to Kindle

Save book to Dropbox

Save book to Google Drive