Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-6bf8c574d5-xtvcr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-28T23:04:16.631Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

3 - Spectroscopic imaging of schizophrenia

from Section I - Schizophrenia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 January 2011

By
Jay W. Pettegrew ,
Richard J. McClure  and
Kanagasabai Panchalingam
Edited by
Martha E. Shenton  and
Bruce I. Turetsky
Jay W. Pettegrew
Affiliation:
Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Behavioral and Community Health Sciences, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and Department of Bioengineering University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Richard J. McClure
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Kanagasabai Panchalingam
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Martha E. Shenton
Affiliation:
VA Boston Healthcare System and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School
Bruce I. Turetsky
Affiliation:
University of Pennsylvania
Get access

Summary

With all technological advances there is the initial infatuation followed by more thoughtful reassessment. In vivo, non-invasive magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) has progressed along this trajectory over the past 20–30 years. While much of the initial excitement revolved around technological advances, case reports, and small clinical studies, now is a good time to engage in a thoughtful reassessment of the potential new insights and pitfalls provided by this technology. This review will attempt this assessment in the context of MRS findings in schizophrenia research.

The first part of the review will address fundamental technological considerations followed by a discussion of what molecular and metabolic information can be obtained from 31P and 1H MRS. This will be followed by a selective review of the literature to date on 31P and 1H MRS studies in schizophrenia.

High field methodological issues

The development of in-vivo MR spectrometers with higher magnetic fields potentially increases sensitivity; however, methodological issues limit the anticipated improvement in both sensitivity (signal to noise ratio) and spectral resolution (Fleysher et al., 2009). These methodological issues are discussed below.

Signal–noise ratio (SNR) following a 90 degree pulse along the rotating frame y-axis

The SNR improves with higher magnetic field (B 0). Under ideal conditions, one can calculate the theoretical SNR.

Keywords

1H MRS31PATPschizophreniaphosphomonoesterphosphodiesterN-acetyl aspartateNMR
Type
Chapter
Information
Understanding Neuropsychiatric Disorders
Insights from Neuroimaging
 , pp. 48 - 77
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abbott, C and Bustillo, J. 2006. What have we learned from proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy about schizophrenia? A critical update. Curr Opin Psychiatry 19, 135–9.
Aydin, K, Ucok, A and Cakir, S. 2007. Quantitative proton MR spectroscopy findings in the corpus callosum of patients with schizophrenia suggest callosal disconnection. Am J Neuroradiol 28, 1968–74.Google Scholar
Barany, M and Glonek, T. 1984. Identification of diseased states by phosphorus-31 NMR. In Gorenstein, D G (Ed.) Phosphorus-31 NMR, Principles and Applications. New York, NY: Academic Press, pp. 511–5.
Baslow, M H. 2003. N-acetylaspartate in the vertebrate brain: metabolism and function. Neurochem Res 28, 941–53.Google Scholar
Bhakoo, K K, Craig, T J and Styles, P. 2001. Developmental and regional distribution of aspartoacylase in rat brain tissue. J Neurochem 79, 211–20.Google Scholar
Birken, D L and Oldendorf, W H. 1989. N-Acetyl-L-aspartic acid: a literature review of a compound prominent in 1H-NMR spectroscopic studies of brain. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 13, 23–31.Google Scholar
Bustillo, J R, Rowland, L M, Jung, R, et al. 2008. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy during initial treatment with antipsychotic medication in schizophrenia. Crit Rev Neurobiol 33, 2456–66.Google Scholar
Cerdan, S, Subramanian, V H, Hilberman, M, et al. 1986. 31P NMR detection of mobile dog brain phospholipids. Magn Reson Med 3, 432–9.Google Scholar
Chandrakumar, N and Subramanian, S. 1987. Coherence transfer. In Modern Techniques in High Resolution FT-NMR. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag New York Inc.
Chang, L, Friedman, J, Ernst, T, Zhong, K, Tsopelas, N D and Davis, K. 2007. Brain metabolite abnormalities in the white matter of elderly schizophrenic subjects: implication for glial dysfunction. Biol Psychiatry 62, 1396–404.Google Scholar
Creese, I and Hess, E J. 1986. Biochemical characteristics of D1 dopamine receptors: relationship to behavior and schizophrenia. Clin Neuropharmacol 9 (Suppl 4), 14–6.Google Scholar
Dager, S R, Corrigan, N M, Richards, T L and Posse, S. 2008. Research applications of magnetic resonance spectroscopy to investigate psychiatric disorders. Top Magn Reson Imaging 19, 81–96.Google Scholar
Kruijff, B, Rietveld, A and Cullis, P R. 1980. 31P-NMR studies on membrane phospholipids in microsomes, rat liver slices and intact perfused rat liver. Biochim Biophys Acta 600, 343–57.Google Scholar
Kruijff, B, Verkley, A J, Echteld, C J, et al. 1979. The occurrence of lipidic particles in lipid bilayers as seen by 31P NMR and freeze–fracture electron-microscopy. Biochim Biophys Acta 555, 200–09.Google Scholar
Delamillieure, P, Constans, J M, Fernandez, J, Brazo, P and Dollfus, S. 2004. Relationship between performance on the Stroop test and N-acetylaspartate in the medial prefrontal cortex in deficit and nondeficit schizophrenia: preliminary results. Psychiatry Res 132, 87–9.Google Scholar
Eeg-Olofsson, O, Kristensson, K, Sourander, P and Svennerholm, L. 1966. Tay-Sach's Disease. A generalized metabolic disorder. Acta Paed Scand 55, 546–62.Google Scholar
Ende, G, Hubrich, P, Walter, S, et al. 2005. Further evidence for altered cerebellar neuronal integrity in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 162, 790–2.Google Scholar
Erecinska, M and Silver, I A. 1990. Metabolism and role of glutamate in mammalian brain. Prog Neurobiol 35, 245–96.Google Scholar
Evans, J S and Chan, S I. 1994. Phosphophoryn, a biomineralization template protein: pH-dependent protein folding experiments. Biopolymers 34, 507–27.Google Scholar
Fleysher, R, Fleysher, L, Liu, S and Gonen, O. 2009. On the voxel size and magnetic field strength dependence of spectral resolution in magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Magn Reson Imaging 27, 222–32.Google Scholar
Frahm, J, Michaelis, T, Merboldt, K D, Hanicke, W, Gyngell, M L and Bruhn, H. 1991. On the N-acetyl methyl resonance in localized 1H NMR spectra of human brain in vivo . NMR Biomed 4, 201–04.Google Scholar
Fukuzako, H. 2001. Neurochemical investigation of the schizophrenic brain by in vivo phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy. World J Biol Psychiatry 2, 70–82.Google Scholar
Fukuzako, H, Fukuzako, T, Hashiguchi, T, Kodama, S, Takigawa, M and Fujimoto, T. 1999. Changes in levels of phosphorus metabolites in temporal lobes of drug-naive schizophrenic patients. Am J Psychiatry 156, 1205–08.Google Scholar
Fukuzako, H, Fukuzako, T, Takeuchi, K, et al. 1996. Phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy in schizophrenia: correlation between membrane phospholipid metabolism in the temporal lobe and positive symptoms. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 20, 629–40.Google Scholar
Gangadhar, B N, Jayakumar, P N, Venkatasubramanian, G, Janakiramaiah, N and Keshavan, M S. 2006. Developmental reflexes and 31P Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy of basal ganglia in antipsychotic-naive schizophrenia. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 30, 910–3.Google Scholar
Geddes, J W, Panchalingam, K, Keller, J N and Pettegrew, J W. 1997. Elevated phosphocholine and phosphatidyl choline following rat entorhinal cortex lesions. Neurobiol Aging 18, 305–08.Google Scholar
Glonek, T, Kopp, S J, Kot, E, Pettegrew, J W, Harrison, W H and Cohen, M M. 1982. P-31 nuclear magnetic resonance analysis of brain: the perchloric acid extract spectrum. J Neurochem 39, 1210–9.Google Scholar
Goldberg, N D and O'Toole, A G. 1969. The properties of glycogen synthetase and regulation of glycogen biosynthesis in rat brain. J Biol Chem 244, 3053–61.Google Scholar
Goldstein, F B. 1959. Biosynthesis of N-acetyl-l-aspartic acid. J Biol Chem 234, 2702–06.Google Scholar
Goldstein, F B. 1969. The enzymatic synthesis of N-acetyl-L-aspartic acid by subcellular preparations. J Biol Chem 244, 4257–60.Google Scholar
Goldstein, G, Panchalingam, K, McClure, R J, et al. 2009. Molecular neurodevelopment: An in vivo 31P–1H MRSI study. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 15, 671–83.Google Scholar
Gonen, O, Gruber, S, Li B, S, Mlynarik, V and Moser, E. 2001. Multivoxel 3D proton spectroscopy in the brain at 1.5 versus 3.0 T: signal-to-noise ratio and resolution comparison. Am J Neuroradiol 22, 1727–31.Google Scholar
Gonzalez-Mendez, R, Litt, L, Koretsky, A P, Colditz, J, Weiner, M W and James, T L. 1984. Comparison of 31P NMR spectra of in vivo rat brain using convolution difference and saturation with a surface coil. Source of the broad component in the brain spectrum. J Magn Reson 57, 526–33.Google Scholar
Hess, H H, Bass, N H, Thalheimer, C and Devarakonda, R. 1976. Gangliosides and the architecture of human frontal and rat somatosensory isocortex. J Neurochem 26, 1115–21.Google Scholar
Hoult, D I and Lauterbur, P C. 1979. The sensitiivty of the zeugmatographic experiment involving human samples. J Magn Reson 34, 425–33.Google Scholar
Jakary, A, Vinogradov, S, Feiwell, R and Deicken, R F. 2005. N-acetylaspartate reductions in the mediodorsal and anterior thalamus in men with schizophrenia verified by tissue volume corrected proton MRSI. Schizophr Res 76, 173–85.Google Scholar
Jansson, S E, Harkonen, M H and Helve, H. 1979. Metabolic properties of nerve endings isolated from rat brain. Acta Physiol Scand 107, 205–12.Google Scholar
Jayakumar, P N, Gangadhar, B N, Subbakrishna, D K, Janakiramaiah, N, Srinivas, J S and Keshavan, M S. 2003. Membrane phospholipid abnormalities of basal ganglia in never-treated schizophrenia: a 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Biol Psychiatry 54, 491–4.Google Scholar
Jayakumar, P N, Venkatasubramanian, G, Keshavan, M S, Srinivas, J S and Gangadhar, B N. 2006. MRI volumetric and 31P MRS metabolic correlates of caudate nucleus in antipsychotic-naive schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 114, 346–51.Google Scholar
Jensen, J E, Al Semaan, Y M, Williamson, P C, et al. 2002a. Region-specific changes in phospholipid metabolism in chronic, medicated schizophrenia: (31)P-MRS study at 4.0 Tesla. Br J Psychiatry 180, 39–44.Google Scholar
Jensen, J E, Drost, D J, Menon, R S and Williamson, P C. 2002b. In vivo brain 31P-MRS: measuring the phospholipid resonances at 4 Tesla from small voxels. NMR Biomed 15, 338–47.Google Scholar
Jensen, J E, Miller, J, Williamson, P C, et al. 2004. Focal changes in brain energy and phospholipid metabolism in first-episode schizophrenia: 31P-MRS chemical shift imaging study at 4 Tesla. Br J Psychiatry 184, 409–15.Google Scholar
Jensen, J E, Miller, J, Williamson, P C, et al. 2006. Grey and white matter differences in brain energy metabolism in first episode schizophrenia: 31P-MRS chemical shift imaging at 4 Tesla. Psychiatry Res 146, 127–35.Google Scholar
Kennedy, C and Sokoloff, L. 1957. An adaptation of the nitrous oxide method to the study of the cerebral circulation in children; normal values for cerebral blood flow and cerebral metabolic rate in childhood. J Clin Invest 36, 1130–7.Google Scholar
Keshavan, M S, Pettegrew, J W, Panchalingam, K S, Kaplan, D and Bozik, E. 1991. Phosphorus 31 magnetic resonance spectroscopy detects altered brain metabolism before onset of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48, 1112–3.Google Scholar
Keshavan, M S, Stanley, J A, Montrose, D M, Minshew, N J and Pettegrew, J W. 2003. Prefrontal membrane phospholipid metabolism of child and adolescent offspring at risk for schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder: an in vivo 31P MRS study. Mol Psychiatry 8, 316–23.Google Scholar
Keshavan, M S, Stanley, J A and Pettegrew, J W. 2000. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy in schizophrenia: methodological issues and findings – Part II. Biol Psychiatry 48, 369–80.Google Scholar
Kilby, P M, Bolas, N M and Radda, G K. 1991. 31P-NMR study of brain phospholipid structures in vivo. Biochim Biophys Acta 1085, 257–64.Google Scholar
King, M M, Huang, C Y, Chock, P B, et al. 1984. Mammalian brain phosphoproteins as substrates for calcineurin. J Biol Chem 259, 8080–3.Google Scholar
Klemm, S, Rzanny, R, Riehemann, S, et al. 2001. Cerebral phosphate metabolism in first-degree relatives of patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 158, 958–60.Google Scholar
Klunk, W E, Xu, C, Panchalingam, K, McClure, R J and Pettegrew, J W. 1996. Quantitative 1H and 31P MRS of PCA extracts of postmortem Alzheimer's disease brain. Neurobiol Aging 17, 349–57.Google Scholar
Klunk, W E, Xu, C J, Panchalingam, K, McClure, R J and Pettegrew, J W. 1994. Analysis of magnetic resonance spectra by mole percent: comparison to absolute units. Neurobiol Aging 15, 133–40.Google Scholar
Knizley, H. 1967. The enzymatic synthesis of N-acetyl-L-aspartic acid by a water-insoluble preparation of a cat brain acetone powder. J Biol Chem 242, 4619–22.Google Scholar
Koller, K J, Zaczek, R and Coyle, J. 1984. N-acetyl-aspartyl-glutamate: regional levels in rat brain and the effects of brain lesions as determined by a new HPLC method. J Neurochem 43, 1136–42.Google Scholar
Li, C W, Negendank, W G, Murphy-Boesch, J, Padavic-Shaller, K and Brown, T R. 1996. Molar quantitation of hepatic metabolites in vivo in proton-decoupled, nuclear Overhauser effect enhanced 31P NMR spectra localized by three-dimensional chemical shift imaging. NMR Biomed 9, 141–55.Google Scholar
Lowden, J A and Wolfe, L S. 1964. Studies on brain gangliosides. III Evidence for the location of gangliosides specifically in neurones. Can J Biochem 42, 1587–94.Google Scholar
Makar, T K, Cooper, A J, Tofel-Grehl, B, Thaler, H T and Blass, J P. 1995. Carnitine, carnitine acetyltransferase, and glutathione in Alzheimer brain. Neurochem Res 20, 705–11.Google Scholar
Marenco, S, Steele, S U, Egan, M F, et al. 2006. Effect of metabotropic glutamate receptor 3 genotype on N-acetylaspartate measures in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Am J Psychiatry 163, 740–2.Google Scholar
Mason, R P, Trumbore, M W and Pettegrew, J W. 1995. Membrane interactions of a phosphomonoester elevated early in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 16, 531–9.Google Scholar
McCandless, D W and Wiggins, R C. 1981. Cerebral energy metabolism during the onset and recovery from halothane anesthesia. Neurochem Res 6, 1319–26.Google Scholar
McClure, R J, Keshavan, M S and Pettegrew, J W. 1998. Chemical and physiologic brain imaging in schizophrenia. In Buckley, P F (Ed.) The Psychiatric Clinics of North America Schizophrenia, Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, pp. 93–122.
McIlwain, H and Bachelard, H S. 1985. Biochemistry and the Central Nervous System. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
McNamara, R, Arias-Mendoza, F and Brown, T R. 1994. Investigation of broad resonances in 31P NMR spectra of the human brain in vivo . NMR Biomed 7, 237–42.Google Scholar
Merrill, A H J and Sandhoff, K. 2002. Sphingolipids: metabolism and cell signaling. In Vance, D E and Vance, J E (Eds) Biochemistry of Lipids, Lipoproteins and Membranes. New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 390–407.
Miller, B L. 1991. A review of chemical issues in 1H NMR spectroscopy: N-acetyl-L-aspartate, creatine and choline. NMR Biomed 4, 47–52.Google Scholar
Miyaoka, T, Yasukawa, R, Mizuno, S, et al. 2005. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) of hippocampus, basal ganglia, and vermis of cerebellum in schizophrenia associated with idiopathic unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia (Gilbert's syndrome). J Psychiatr Res 39, 29–34.Google Scholar
Molina, V, Sanchez, J, Sanz, J, et al. 2007. Dorsolateral prefrontal N-acetyl-aspartate concentration in male patients with chronic schizophrenia and with chronic bipolar disorder. Eur Psychiatry J Assoc Eur Psychiatrists 22, 505–12.Google Scholar
Murphy-Boesch, J, Stoyanova, R, Srinivasan, R, et al. 1993. Proton-decoupled 31P chemical shift imaging of the human brain in normal volunteers. NMR Biomed 6, 173–80.Google Scholar
Murphy, E J, Bates, T E, Williams, S R, et al. 1992. Endoplasmic reticulum: the major contributor to the PDE peak in hepatic 31P-NMR spectra at low magnetic field strengths. Biochim Biophys Acta 1111, 51–8.Google Scholar
Murphy, E J, Rajagopalan, B, Brindle, K M and Radda, G K. 1989. Phospholipid bilayer contribution to 31P NMR spectra in vivo . Magn Reson Med 12, 282–9.Google Scholar
Nadler, J V and Cooper, J R. 1972. N-acetyl-L-aspartic acid content of human neural humours and bovine peripheral nervous tissues. J Neurochem 19, 313–9.Google Scholar
O'Neill, J, Levitt, J, Caplan, R, et al. 2004. 1H MRSI evidence of metabolic abnormalities in childhood-onset schizophrenia. Neuroimage 21, 1781–9.Google Scholar
Ohrmann, P, Siegmund, A, Suslow, T, et al. 2007. Cognitive impairment and in vivo metabolites in first-episode neuroleptic-naive and chronic medicated schizophrenic patients: a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. J Psychiatr Res 41, 625–34.Google Scholar
Ohrmann, P, Siegmund, A, Suslow, T, et al. 2005. Evidence for glutamatergic neuronal dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex in chronic but not in first-episode patients with schizophrenia: a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Schizophr Res 73, 153–7.Google Scholar
Ongur, D, Jensen, J E, Prescot, A P, et al. 2008. Abnormal glutamatergic neurotransmission and neuronal–glial interactions in acute mania. Biol Psychiatry 64, 718–26.Google Scholar
Ongur, D, Prescot, A P, Jensen, J E, Cohen, B M and Renshaw, P F. 2009. Creatine abnormalities in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Res 172, 44–8.Google Scholar
Paz, R D, Tardito, S, Atzori, M and Tseng, K Y. 2008. Glutamatergic dysfunction in schizophrenia: from basic neuroscience to clinical psychopharmacology. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 18, 773–86.Google Scholar
Pelupessy, P, Rennella, E and Bodenhausen, G. 2009. High-resolution NMR in magnetic fields with unknown spatiotemporal variations. Science 324, 1693–7.Google Scholar
Perry, T L, Hansen, S, Berry, K, Mok, C and Lesk, D. 1971. Free amino acids and related compounds in biopsies of human brain. J Neurochem 18, 521–8.Google Scholar
Petroff, O A C, Prichard, J W, Behar, K L, Alger, J R, Hollander, J A and Shulman, R G. 1985. Cerebral intracellular pH by 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Neurology 35, 781–8.Google Scholar
Pettegrew, J W, Keshavan, M S, Panchalingam, K, et al. 1991. Alterations in brain high-energy phosphate and membrane phospholipid metabolism in first-episode, drug-naive schizophrenics. A pilot study of the dorsal prefrontal cortex by in vivo phosphorus 31 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48, 563–8.Google Scholar
Pettegrew, J W, Panchalingam, K, Klunk, W E, McClure, R J and Muenz, L R. 1994. Alterations of cerebral metabolism in probable Alzheimer's disease: a preliminary study. Neurobiol Aging 15, 117–32.Google Scholar
Pettegrew, J W, Panchalingam, K, Withers, G, McKeag, D and Strychor, S. 1990. Changes in brain energy and phospholipid metabolism during development and aging in the Fischer 344 rat. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 49, 237–49.Google Scholar
Pettegrew, J W, Withers, G, Panchalingam, K and Post, J F. 1988. Considerations for brain pH assessment by 31P NMR. Magn Reson Imaging 6, 135–42.Google Scholar
Potwarka, J J, Drost, D J, Williamson, P C, et al. 1999. A 1H-decoupled 31P chemical shift imaging study of medicated schizophrenic patients and healthy controls. Biol Psychiatry 45, 687–93.Google Scholar
Pouwels, P J and Frahm, J. 1997. Differential distribution of NAA and NAAG in human brain as determined by quantitative localized proton MRS. NMR Biomed 10, 73–8.Google Scholar
Purdon, S E, Valiakalayil, A, Hanstock, C C, Seres, P and Tibbo, P. 2008. Elevated 3T proton MRS glutamate levels associated with poor Continuous Performance Test (CPT-0X) scores and genetic risk for schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 99, 218–24.Google Scholar
Puri, B K, Counsell, S J, Hamilton, G, et al. 2004. Cerebral metabolism in male patients with schizophrenia who have seriously and dangerously violently offended: a 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Prostag Leukotri and Ess Fatty Acids 70, 409–11.Google Scholar
Puri, B K, Counsell, S J, Hamilton, G, Bustos, M and Treasaden, I H. 2008. Brain cell membrane motion-restricted phospholipids in patients with schizophrenia who have seriously and dangerously violently offended. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 32, 751–4.Google Scholar
Riehemann, S, Hubner, G, Smesny, S, Volz, H P and Sauer, H. 2002. Do neuroleptics alter the cerebral intracellular pH value in schizophrenics? A (31)P-MRS study on three different patient groups. Psychiatry Res 114, 113–7.Google Scholar
Rothermundt, M, Ohrmann, P, Abel, S, et al. 2007. Glial cell activation in a subgroup of patients with schizophrenia indicated by increased S100B serum concentrations and elevated myo-inositol. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 31, 361–4.Google Scholar
Rowland, L M, Bustillo, J R, Mullins, P G, et al. 2005. Effects of ketamine on anterior cingulate glutamate metabolism in healthy humans: a 4-T proton MRS study. Am J Psychiatry 162, 394–6.Google Scholar
Rzanny, R, Klemm, S, Reichenbach, J R, et al. 2003. 31P-MR spectroscopy in children and adolescents with a familial risk of schizophrenia. Eur Radiol 13, 763–70.Google Scholar
Scherk, H, Backens, M, Zill, P, et al. 2008. SNAP-25 genotype influences NAA/Cho in left hippocampus. J Neural Transm 115, 1513–8.Google Scholar
Seelig, J. 1978. 31P nuclear magnetic resonance and the head group structure of phospholipids in membranes. Biochim Biophys Acta 515, 105–40.Google Scholar
Seeman, P. 2002. Atypical antipsychotics: mechanism of action. Can J Psychiatry – Rev Can Psychiatrie 47, 27–38.Google Scholar
Shedd, S F, Lutz, N W and Hull, W E. 1993. The influence of medium formulation on phosphomonoester and UDP-hexose levels in cultured human colon tumor cells as observed by 31P NMR spectroscopy. NMR Biomed 6, 254–63.Google Scholar
Shenton, M E, Dickey, C C, Frumin, M and McCarley, R W. 2001. A review of MRI findings in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 49, 1–52.Google Scholar
Shimizu, E, Hashimoto, K, Ochi, S, et al. 2007. Posterior cingulate gyrus metabolic changes in chronic schizophrenia with generalized cognitive deficits. J Psychiatr Res 41, 49–56.Google Scholar
Shirayama, Y, Yano, T, Takahashi, K, Takahashi, S and Ogino, T. 2004. In vivo 31P NMR spectroscopy shows an increase in glycerophosphorylcholine concentration without alterations in mitochondrial function in the prefrontal cortex of medicated schizophrenic patients at rest. Eur J Neurosci 20, 749–56.Google Scholar
Simmons, M L, Frondoza, C G and Coyle, J T. 1991. Immunocytochemical localization of N-acetyl-aspartate with monoclonal antibodies. Neuroscience 45, 37–45.Google Scholar
Smesny, S, Rosburg, T, Nenadic, I, et al. 2007. Metabolic mapping using 2D 31P-MR spectroscopy reveals frontal and thalamic metabolic abnormalities in schizophrenia. Neuroimage 35, 729–37.Google Scholar
Sokoloff, L. 1991. Measurement of local cerebral glucose utilization and its relation to local functional activity in the brain. Adv Exp Med Biol 291, 21–42.Google Scholar
Sokoloff, L. 1993. Function-related changes in energy metabolism in the nervous system: localization and mechanisms. Keio J Med 42, 95–103.Google Scholar
Stanley, J A. 2002. In vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopy and its application to neuropsychiatric disorders. Can J Psychiatry 47, 315–26.Google Scholar
Stanley, J A and Pettegrew, J W. 2001. Post-processing method to segregate and quantify the broad components underlying the phosphodiester spectral region of in vivo 31-P brain spectra. Magn Reson Med 45, 390–6.Google Scholar
Stanley, J A, Pettegrew, J W and Keshavan, M S. 2000. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy in schizophrenia: methodological issues and fIndings – Part I. Biol Psychiatry 48, 357–68.Google Scholar
Stanley, J A, Vemulapalli, M, Nutche, J, et al. 2007. Reduced N-acetyl-aspartate levels in schizophrenia patients with a younger onset age: a single-voxel 1H spectroscopy study. Schizophr Res 93, 23–32.Google Scholar
Stanley, J A, Williamson, P C, Drost, D J, et al. 1994. Membrane phospholipid metabolism and schizophrenia: an in vivo 31P-MR spectroscopy study. Schizophr Res 13, 209–15.Google Scholar
Steen, R G, Hamer, R M and Lieberman, J A. 2005. Measurement of brain metabolites by 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy in patients with schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Rev Neurobiol 30, 1949–62.Google Scholar
Suzuki, K. 1966. The pattern of mammalian brain gangliosides III. Regional and developmental differences. J Neurochem 12, 969–79.Google Scholar
Szulc, A, Galinska, B, Tarasow, E, et al. 2005. The effect of risperidone on metabolite measures in the frontal lobe, temporal lobe, and thalamus in schizophrenic patients. A proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H MRS). Pharmacopsychiatry 38, 214–9.Google Scholar
Tallan, H H. 1957. Studies on the distribution of N-acetyl-L-aspartic acid in brain. J Biol Chem 224, 41–5.Google Scholar
Tallan, H H, Moore, S and Stein, W H. 1956. N-acetyl-L-aspartic acid in brain. J Biol Chem 219, 257–64.Google Scholar
Tanaka, Y, Obata, T, Sassa, T, et al. 2006. Quantitative magnetic resonance spectroscopy of schizophrenia: relationship between decreased N-acetylaspartate and frontal lobe dysfunction. Psychiatry and Clin Neurosci 60, 365–72.Google Scholar
Tang, C Y, Friedman, J, Shungu, D, et al. 2007. Correlations between Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) and Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (1H MRS) in schizophrenic patients and normal controls. BMC Psychiatry 7, 25.Google Scholar
Terpstra, M, Vaughan, T J, Ugurbil, K, Lim, K O, Schulz, S C and Gruetter, R. 2005. Validation of glutathione quantitation from STEAM spectra against edited 1H NMR spectroscopy at 4T: application to schizophrenia. Magma 18, 276–82.Google Scholar
Theberge, J, Al Semaan, Y, Drost, D J, et al. 2004a. Duration of untreated psychosis vs. N-acetylaspartate and choline in first episode schizophrenia: a 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy study at 4.0 Tesla. Psychiatry Res 131, 107–14.Google Scholar
Theberge, J, Al Semaan, Y, Jensen, J E, et al. 2004b. Comparative study of proton and phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy in schizophrenia at 4 Tesla. Psychiatry Res 132, 33–9.Google Scholar
Theberge, J, Williamson, K E, Aoyama, N, et al. 2007. Longitudinal grey-matter and glutamatergic losses in first-episode schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 191, 325–34.Google Scholar
Tibbo, P, Hanstock, C, Valiakalayil, A and Allen, P. 2004. 3-T proton MRS investigation of glutamate and glutamine in adolescents at high genetic risk for schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 161, 1116–8.Google Scholar
Truckenmiller, M E, Namboodiri, M A A, Brownstein, M J and Neale, J H. 1985. N-Acetylation of L-aspartate in the nervous system: differential distribution of a specific enzyme. J Neurochem 45, 1658–62.Google Scholar
Ugurbil, K, Adriany, G, Andersen, P, et al. 2003. Ultrahigh field magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy. Magn Reson Imaging 21, 1263–81.Google Scholar
Ulrich, M, Wokrina, T, Ende, G, Lang, M and Bachert, P. 2007. 31P-{1H} Echo-planar spectroscopic imaging of the human brain in vivo. Magn Reson Med 57, 784–90.Google Scholar
Urenjak, J, Williams, S R, Gadian, D G and Noble, M. 1993. Proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy unambiguously identifies different neural cell types. J Neurosci 13, 981–9.Google Scholar
Elst, L T, Valerius, G, Buchert, M, et al. 2005. Increased prefrontal and hippocampal glutamate concentration in schizophrenia: evidence from a magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Biol Psychiatry 58, 724–30.Google Scholar
Vance, D E. 1991. Phospholipid metabolism and cell signalling in eucaryotes. In Vance, D E and Vance, J E (Eds) Biochemistry of Lipids, Lipoproteins and Membranes, Volume 20. New York, NY: Elsevier, pp. 205–40.
Vance, J E. 1988. Compartmentalization of phospholipids for lipoprotein assembly on the basis of molecular species and biosynthetic origin. Biochim Biophys Acta 963, 70–81.Google Scholar
Vaughan, J T, Garwood, M, Collins, C M, et al. 2001. 7T vs. 4T: RF power, homogeneity, and signal-to-noise comparison in head images. Magn Reson Med 46, 24–30.Google Scholar
Volz, H R, Riehemann, S, Maurer, I, et al. 2000. Reduced phosphodiesters and high-energy phosphates in the frontal lobe of schizophrenic patients: a (31)P chemical shift spectroscopic-imaging study. Biol Psychiatry 47, 954–61.Google Scholar
Weickert, C S and Kleinman, J E. 1998. The neuroanatomy and neurochemistry of schizophrenia. In Buckley, P F (Ed.) The Psychiatric Clinics of North America Schizophrenia. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, pp. 57–75.
Whittaker, V P. 1966. Some properties of synaptic membranes isolated from the central nervous system. Ann N Y Acad Sci 137, 982–98.Google Scholar
Wiegandt, H. 1967. The subcellular localization of gangliosides in the brain. J Neurochem 14, 671–4.Google Scholar
Wood, S J, Berger, G E, Lambert, M, et al. 2006. Prediction of functional outcome 18 months after a first psychotic episode: a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63, 969–76.Google Scholar
Wood, S J, Berger, G E, Wellard, R M, et al. 2008. A 1H-MRS investigation of the medial temporal lobe in antipsychotic-naive and early-treated first episode psychosis. Schizophr Res 102, 163–70.Google Scholar
Wood, S J, Yucel, M, Wellard, R M, et al. 2007. Evidence for neuronal dysfunction in the anterior cingulate of patients with schizophrenia: a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study at 3 T. Schizophr Res 94, 328–31.Google Scholar
Yacubian, J, Castro, C C, Ometto, M, et al. 2002. 31P-spectroscopy of frontal lobe in schizophrenia: alterations in phospholipid and high-energy phosphate metabolism. Schizophr Res 58, 117–22.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

  • Spectroscopic imaging of schizophrenia
    • By Jay W. Pettegrew, Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Behavioral and Community Health Sciences, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and Department of Bioengineering University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA, USA, Richard J. McClure, Department of Psychiatry University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh, PA, USA, Kanagasabai Panchalingam, Department of Psychiatry University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh, PA, USA
  • Edited by Martha E. Shenton, Bruce I. Turetsky, University of Pennsylvania
  • Book: Understanding Neuropsychiatric Disorders
  • Online publication: 10 January 2011
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511782091.004
Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

  • Spectroscopic imaging of schizophrenia
    • By Jay W. Pettegrew, Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Behavioral and Community Health Sciences, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and Department of Bioengineering University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA, USA, Richard J. McClure, Department of Psychiatry University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh, PA, USA, Kanagasabai Panchalingam, Department of Psychiatry University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh, PA, USA
  • Edited by Martha E. Shenton, Bruce I. Turetsky, University of Pennsylvania
  • Book: Understanding Neuropsychiatric Disorders
  • Online publication: 10 January 2011
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511782091.004
Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

  • Spectroscopic imaging of schizophrenia
    • By Jay W. Pettegrew, Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Behavioral and Community Health Sciences, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and Department of Bioengineering University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA, USA, Richard J. McClure, Department of Psychiatry University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh, PA, USA, Kanagasabai Panchalingam, Department of Psychiatry University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh, PA, USA
  • Edited by Martha E. Shenton, Bruce I. Turetsky, University of Pennsylvania
  • Book: Understanding Neuropsychiatric Disorders
  • Online publication: 10 January 2011
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511782091.004
Available formats
×