Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-mzp66 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-13T16:56:43.112Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

11 - Sampling and monitoring wood ants

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 June 2016

By
Anne Freitag ,
Jenni A. Stockan ,
Christian Bernasconi ,
Arnaud Maeder  and
Daniel Cherix
Edited by
Jenni A. Stockan  and
Elva J. H. Robinson
Anne Freitag
Affiliation:
Museum of Zoology, Lausanne, Switzerland
Jenni A. Stockan
Affiliation:
James Hutton Institute, Aberdeen,UK
Christian Bernasconi
Affiliation:
Museum of Zoology, Lausanne, Switzerland
Arnaud Maeder
Affiliation:
Museum of Natural History, La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland
Daniel Cherix
Affiliation:
University of Lausanne, Lausanne-Dorigny, Switzerland
Jenni A. Stockan
Affiliation:
The James Hutton Institute
Elva J. H. Robinson
Affiliation:
University of York
Get access

Summary

Wood ants (Formica rufa group) are the ecological centre of many temperate and boreal forest ecosystems, with influence over ecosystem processes and other organisms. Owing to their dominance and keystone role, there are many reasons why it may be desirable or necessary to sample or monitor wood ants. Most field-based studies are based on exploring the relationships between red wood ants and their environment, be it the effects wood ants have on their surroundings via their nesting or foraging activities, or the effect a changing environment has on the ants. Given their keystone roles with the ecosystem, red wood ants can be useful indicators of ecosystem health, environmental degradation or restoration, or climate change (Torossian 1977b; Sorvari and Hakkarainen 2007b). With many species in Eurasia threatened and those in North America little understood, there is often simply a requirement to assess whether a species is present or not, or whether introductions or translocations have been successful.

Unlike most other invertebrates, and indeed even other ant species, most red wood ants build conspicuous and long-lasting mound nests that facilitate their census. However, as for other ant species, this social living presents particular challenges for sampling and monitoring. Careful planning and the application of considered methods are needed to overcome these difficulties. This chapter provides an overview of the sampling methods and approaches that have been directly applied to wood ants, and the theory underpinning them. Where methods or approaches are ineffective or warrant further development, these are highlighted. The goal is to recommend a set of reliable and easy to use methods that can provide accurate and repeatable data, which are comparable between studies.

The challenges of studying red wood ants

Consideration of life cycle and seasonality

Effective sampling or monitoring of wood ants presents considerable theoretical and practical problems. Wood ants are social insects which are patchily distributed and territorial. Moreover, there are seasonal patterns to the abundance and presence of certain castes. The queen (or queens) and some workers are present throughout the year, though not always visibly so. Males and particular stages of brood are present only for part of the year and this can depend on factors such as colony size and age, food availability and local environmental variables.

Type
Chapter
Information
Wood Ant Ecology and Conservation , pp. 238 - 263
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2016

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Arnan, X., Gracia, M., Comas, L. and Retana, J. (2009) Forest management conditioning ground ant community structure and composition in temperate conifer forests in the Pyrenees Mountains. Forest Ecology and Management 258: 51–59.Google Scholar
Baines, D., Sage, R. B. and Baines, M. M. (1994) The implications of red deer grazing to ground vegetation and invertebrate communities of Scottish native pinewoods. Journal of Applied Ecology 31: 776–783.Google Scholar
Barrett, K. E. J. (1968) A survey of the distribution and present status of the wood ant, Formica rufa L. (Hym., Formicidae), in England and Wales. Transactions of the Society for British Entomology 17: 217–233.Google Scholar
Bernasconi, C., Maeder, A., , Cherix D., and Pamilo, P. (2005) Diversity and genetic structure of the wood ant Formica lugubris in unmanaged forests. Annales Zoologici Fennici 42: 189–199.Google Scholar
Bernasconi, C., Cherix, D., Seifert, B. and Pamilo, P. (2011) Molecular taxonomy of the Formica rufa group (red wood ants) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae): a new cryptic species in the Swiss Alps?Myrmecological News 14: 37–47.Google Scholar
Bestelmeyer, B. T., Agosti, D., Alonso, L. E., et al. (2000) Ants: Standard Methods for Measuring and Monitoring Biodiversity. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Borkin, K. M., Summers, R. W. and Thomas, L. (2012) Surveying abundance and stand type associations of Formica aquilonia and F. lugubris (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) nest mounds over an extensive area: trialing a novel method. European Journal of Entomology 109: 47–53.Google Scholar
Cathrine, C. (2015) Wood ant nest translocations. Inpractice: Bulletin of the Chartered Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management 89: 14–18.Google Scholar
Cathrine, C. and MacIver, C. (2014) Caledonian Conservation Ltd Technical Note 1: Wood Ant Translocation Protocol. Hamilton, UK: Caledonian Conservation Ltd.
Chapuisat, M., Bernasconi, C., Hoehn, S. and Reuter, M. (2005) Nestmate recognition in the unicolonial ant Formica paralugubris. Behavioural Ecology 16: 15–19.Google Scholar
Chauvin, R. (1966) Un procédé pour récolter automatiquement les poies que les Formica polyctena rapportent au nid. Insectes Sociaux 8: 59–68.Google Scholar
Chen, Y.-H. and Robinson, E. J. H. (2013) A comparison of mark–release–recapture methods for estimating colony size in the wood ant Formica lugubris. Insectes Sociaux 60: 351–359.Google Scholar
Chen, Y.-H. and Robinson, E. J. H. (2014) The relationship between canopy cover and colony size of the wood ant Formica lugubris: implications for the thermal effects on a keystone ant species. PLoS One 9(12): e116113.Google Scholar
Cherix, D. (1987) Relation between diet and polyethism in Formica colonies. In From individual to collective behaviour in social insects: les Treilles Workshop. In Pasteels, J. M. and Deneubourg, J-L. (eds), Experimenta Supplementum. Vol. 54. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhäuser Verlag, pp. 93–115.
Cherix, D. and Rosengren, R. (1980) Estimation de la fidélité sur pistes et de l'âge des fourrageuses chez Formica lugubris Zett. dans le Jura suisse, par la méthode de coloration au spray. Comptes Rendus de l'UIEIS Section française, Lausanne, pp. 61–69.
Cherix, D., Devenoges, A., Freitag, A., Bernasconi, C. and Maeder, A. (2007) Premier recensement des fourmis des bois (groupe Formica rufa) au Parc National Suisse. Nationalpark-Forschung in der Schweiz 94: 69–79.Google Scholar
Cherix, D., Chautems, D., Fletcher, D. J. C., Fortelius, W., et al. (1989) Le vol nuptial chez Formica lugubris Zett. (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). I. Facteurs influençant l'apparition et l'envol des sexués. Actes Colloque Insectes Sociaux 5: 45–53.Google Scholar
Dekoninck, W., Hendrickx, F., Grootaert, P. and Maelfait, F. P. (2010) Present conservation status of red wood ants in north-western Belgium: worse than previously, but not a lost cause. European Journal of Entomology 107: 209–218.Google Scholar
Deslippe, R. J. and Savolainen, R. (1994) Role of food supply in structuring a population of Formica ants. Journal of Animal Ecology 63: 756–764.Google Scholar
Domisch, T., Finér, L. and Jürgensen, M. F. (2005) Red wood ant mound densities in managed boreal forests. Annales Zoologici Fennici 42: 277–282.Google Scholar
Domisch, T., Finér, L., Neuvonen, S., et al. (2009) Foraging activity and dietary spectrum of wood ants (Formica rufa group) and their role in nutrient fluxes in boreal forests. Ecological Entomology 34(3): 369–377.Google Scholar
Domisch, T., Neuvonen, S., Sundström, L., et al. (2011) Sources of variation in the incidence of ant–aphid mutualism in boreal forests. Agricultural and Forest Entomology 13(3): 239–245.Google Scholar
Donisthorpe, H. S. J. K. (1915) British Ants, Their Life-History And Classification. Plymouth, UK: W. Brendon and Son.
Eeva, T., Sorvari, J. and Koivunen, V. (2004) Effects of heavy metal pollution on red wood ant (Formica s. str.) populations. Environmental Pollution 132: 533–539.Google Scholar
Eichhorn, O. (1963) Die höhen- und waldtypenmässige Verbreitung der nützlichen Waldameisen in den Ostalpen. Waldhygiene 5: 129–135.Google Scholar
Eichhorn, O. (1964) Zur Verbreitung und Ökologie der hügelbauenden Waldameisen in den Ostalpen. Zeitschrift für angewandte Entomologie 54: 253–289.Google Scholar
Ellis, S. and Robinson, E. J. H. (2015) The role of non-foraging nests in polydomous wood ant colonies. PLoS ONE 10(10): e0138321.Google Scholar
Ellis, S., Franks, D. W. and Robinson, E. J. H. (2014) Resource redistribution in polydomous ant nest networks: local or global?Behavioral Ecology 25: 1183–1191.Google Scholar
Fedoseeva, E. B. (2011) Morphometric characteristics of Formica aquilonia ants in monitoring of their settlements. Entomological Review 91: 152–168.Google Scholar
Feltham, H., Park, K. and Goulson, D. (2014) Field realistic doses of pesticide imidacloprid reduce bumblebee foraging efficiency. Ecotoxicology 23: 317–323.Google Scholar
Fleishmann, H. (2007) Guidelines on Emergency Resettlements of Wood Ant Populations. German Office for the Protection of Ants. Work Group on Emergency Resettlements. Trans. Steuber, V. Hünxe, Germany:Deutsche Ameisenschutzwarte e.V.
Francoeur, A. and Pépin, D. (1975) Productivité de la fourmi Formica dakotensis dans la pessière tourbeuse. I: Densité observée et densité estimée des colonies. Insectes Sociaux 22: 135–150.Google Scholar
Freitag, A. (2008) Les fourmis des bois (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) sont-elles en régression en Suisse? Le point sur nos connaissances et réflexions pour des études futures. Entomo Helvetica 1: 33–41.Google Scholar
Freitag, A. and Cherix, D. (2009) Distribution des fourmis des bois et espèces apparentées (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, genre Formica) dans le canton de Vaud. Entomo Helvetica 2: 83–95.Google Scholar
Freitag, A., Cherix, D., Maeder, A. and Bernasconi, C. (2013) Formica exsecta: une espèce à l'aise au PNS. In Haller, H., Eisenhut, A. and Haller, R. M. (eds), Atlas des Schweizerischen Nationalparks. Die ersten 100 Jahre. Bern: Haupt Verlag, pp. 112–115.
Gibb, H. and Hjältén, J. (2007) Effects of low severity burning after clear-cutting on mid-boreal ant communities in the two years after fire. Journal of Insect Conservation 11: 169–175.Google Scholar
Gibb, H. and Johansson, T. (2010) Forest succession and harvesting of hemipteran honeydew by boreal ants. Annales Zoologici Fennici 47: 99–110.Google Scholar
Gilev, A. V. (2011) Spatial distribution of red wood ants and scientific basis of their protection. Entomological Review 91: 133–140.Google Scholar
Glaser, F. (2008) Verbreitung, Nestdichten und Ökologie hügelbauender Waldameisen der Gattung Formica im Tiroler Wald. Mitteilung der Deutschen Gesellschaft für allgemeine und angewandte Entomologie 16: 143–147.Google Scholar
Gösswald, K. (1989) Die Waldameise. Band 1. Biologische Grundlagen, Ökologie und Verhalten. Wiesbaden, Germany: AULA.
Guisan, A. and Zimmermann, N. E. (2000) Predictive habitat distribution models in ecology. Ecological Modelling 135: 147–186.Google Scholar
Gyllenstrand, N. and Seppä, P. (2003) Conservation genetics of the wood ant, Formica lugubris, in a fragmented landscape. Molecular Ecology 12: 2931–2940.Google Scholar
Hawes, C., Stewart, A. J. A. and Evans, H. F. (2002) The impact of wood ants (Formica rufa) on the distribution and abundance of ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in a Scots pine plantation. Oecologia 131: 612–619.Google Scholar
Heidinger, I. M. M., Meixner, M. D., Berg, S. and Büchler, R. (2014) Observation of the mating behaviour of honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) queens using radio-frequency identification (RFID): factors influencing the duration and frequency of nuptial flights. Insects 5: 513–527.Google Scholar
Higgins, R. J. and Lindgren, B. S. (2012) An evaluation of methods for sampling ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in British Columbia, Canada. Canadian Entomologist 144: 491–507.Google Scholar
Holt, S.J. (1955) On the foraging activity of the wood ant. Journal of Animal Ecology 24: 1–34.Google Scholar
Hughes, I. G. (1975) Changing altitude and habitat preferences of two species of wood ant (Formica rufa and F. lugubris) in North Wales and Salop. Transactions of the Royal Entomological Society, London 127: 227–239.Google Scholar
Iason, G., Moore, B., Lennon, J., et al. (2012) Plant secondary metabolites and the extended chemical phenotype. In Iason, G., Dicke, M. and Hartley, S. (eds), The Ecology of Plant Secondary Metabolites: From Genes to Global Processes. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, Chapter 13, pp. 247–268.
Johansson, T. and Gibb, H. (2012) Forestry alters foraging efficiency and crop contents of aphid-tending red wood ants, Formica aquilonia. PLoS ONE 7: e32817.Google Scholar
Karhu, K. J. (2002) Effects of ant exclusion during outbreaks of a defoliator and a sap-sucker on birch. Ecological Entomology 23: 185–194.Google Scholar
Kilpeläinen, J., Punttila, P., Sundström, L., Niemelä, P. and Finér, L. (2005) Forest stand structure, site type and distribution of ant mounds in boreal forests in Finland in the 1950s. Annales Zoologici Fennici 42: 243–258.Google Scholar
Kilpeläinen, J., Punttila, P., Finèr, L., et al. (2008) Distribution of ant species and mounds (Formica) in different-aged managed spruce stands in eastern Finland. Journal of Applied Entomology 132: 315–335.Google Scholar
Kilpeläinen, J., Finér, L., Neuvonen, S., et al. (2009) Does the mutualism between wood ants (Formica rufa group) and Cinara aphids affect Norway spruce growth?Forest Ecology and Management 257(1): 238–243.Google Scholar
Kim, C. H. and Murakami, Y. (1980) Ecological-studies on Formica yessensis Forel, with special reference to its effectiveness as a biological-control agent of the pine caterpillar moth in Korea. II. Bionomics of Formica yessensis Forel (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in Korea. Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University 25: 119–133.Google Scholar
Kim, C. H. and Murakami, Y. (1981) Ecological-studies on Formica yessensis Forel, with special reference to its effectiveness as a biological-control agent of the pine caterpillar moth in Korea. III. Nest distribution and environmental conditions of nest sites. Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University 26: 9–19.Google Scholar
Klimetzek, D. (1970) Zur Bedeutung des Kleinstandorts für die Verbreitung hügelbaudender Waldameisen der Formica rufa-Gruppe (Hymenoptera Formicidae). Zeitschrift für angewandte Entomologie 66: 84–95.Google Scholar
Klimetzek, D. (1981) Population studies on hill building wood ants of the Formica rufa-group. Oecologia 48: 418–421.Google Scholar
Kneitz, G. (1965) Formica-Arten mit vegetabilischem Nest-bau in den Gurktaler Alpen (Kärnten). Waldhygiene 5: 240–250.Google Scholar
Laine, K. J. and Niemelä, P. (1989) Nests and nest sites of red wood ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) in Subartic Finland. Annales Entomologici Fennici 55: 81–88.Google Scholar
Maavara, V. (1991) Volume determination of the nest mounds of red wood ants (in Russian). Proceedings of the IX Symposium Myrmecologists of USSR in Kolotshava: 11–14.
Maavara, V., Martin, A.-J., Oja, A. and Nuorteva, P. (2007) Sampling of different social categories of red wood ants (Formica s. str.) for biomonitoring. In Markert, B. (ed.), Environmental Sampling for Trace Analysis. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH.
Maggini, R., Guisan, A. and Cherix, D. (2002) A stratified approach for modeling the distribution of a threatened ant species in the Swiss National Park. Biodiversity and Conservation 11: 2117–2141.Google Scholar
Mäki-Petäys, H., Zakharov, A., Viljakainen, L., Corander, J. and Pamilo, P. (2005) Genetic changes associated to declining populations of Formica ants in fragmented forest landscape. Molecular Ecology 14: 733–742.Google Scholar
Nelmes, E. (1938) A survey of the distribution of the wood ant (Formica rufa) in England, Wales, and Scotland. Journal of Animal Ecology 7: 74–104.Google Scholar
Persico, P. (2004) Habitat modelling of two sympatric sibling wood ant species in the Swiss Jura. Master thesis. Lausanne, Switzerland: University of Lausanne.
Procter, D. S., Cottrell, J., Watts, K. and Robinson, E. J. H. (2015) Do non-native conifer plantations provide benefits for a native forest specialist, the wood ant Formica lugubris?Forest Ecology and Management 357: 22–32.Google Scholar
Punttila, P. (1996) Succession, forest fragmentation, and the distribution of wood ant. Oikos 75: 291–298.Google Scholar
Punttila, P. and Haila, Y. (1996) Colonisation of a burned forest by ants in the southern Finnish boreal forest. Silva Fennica 30: 421–435.Google Scholar
Punttila, P. and Kilpeläinen, J. (2009) Distribution of mound-building ant species (Formica spp., Hymenoptera) in Finland: Preliminary results of a national survey. Annales Zoologici Fennici 46: 1–15.Google Scholar
Punttila, P., Haila, Y., Pajunen, T. and Tukia, H. (1991) Colonisation of clearcut forests by ants in the southern Finnish taiga: a quantitative survey. Oikos 61: 250–262.Google Scholar
Punttila, P., Niemelä, P. and Karhu, K. (2004) The impact of wood ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) on the structure of invertebrate community on mountain birch (Betula pubescens ssp. czerepanovii). Annales Zoologici Fennici 41: 429–446.Google Scholar
Rabitsch, W. B. (1997) Seasonal metal accumulation patterns in the red wood ant Formica pratensis (Hymenoptera) at contaminated and reference sites. Journal of Applied Ecology 34: 1455–1461.Google Scholar
Risch, A. C., Jürgensen, M. F., Storer, A. J., Hyslop, M. D. and Schütz, M. (2008) Abundance and distribution of organic mound-building ants of the Formica rufa group in Yellowstone National Park. Journal of Applied Ecology 132: 326–336.Google Scholar
Robinson, N. A. and Robinson, E. J. H. (2008) The red wood ant Formica rufa (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) at Gait Barrows national nature reserve, Lancashire, England, 1986–2006: longevity and multiplication of nest and the effects of management. British Journal of Entomology and Natural History 21: 225–241.Google Scholar
Robinson, N. A. and Woodgate, J. N. (2004) A study of the wood ant Formica lugubris Zetterstedt (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in Ashness Woods, Borrowdale, Cumbria, England in 2001 and 2003. British Journal of Entomology and Natural History 17: 203–211.Google Scholar
Robinson, E. J. H., Tofilski, A. and Ratnieks, F. L. W. (2008) The use of native and non-native tree species for foraging and nesting habitat by the wood-ant Formica lugubris (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Myrmecological News 11: 1–7.Google Scholar
Rosengren, R. (1971) Route fidelity, visual memory and recruitment behaviour in foraging wood ants. Acta Zoologica Fennica 133: 1–106.Google Scholar
Rosengren, R. and Fortelius, W. (1986) Ortstreue in foraging ants of the Formica rufa group: hierarchy of orienting cues and long-term memory. Insectes Sociaux 33: 306–337.Google Scholar
Rosengren, R., Vepsäläinen, K. and Wuorenrinne, H. (1979) Distribution, nest densities, and ecological significance of wood ants (the Formica rufa group) in Finland. Bulletin SROP II 3: 183–213.Google Scholar
Rosengren, R., Fortelius, W., Lindström, K. and Luther, A. (1987) Phenology and causation of nest heating and thermoregulation in red wood ants of the Formica rufa group studied in coniferous forest habitats in southern Finland. Annales Zoologici Fennici 24: 147–155.Google Scholar
Rossi-Pedruzzi, A. (2008) Ecological requirements and niche comparison of two endangered sibling species of red wood ants. Master thesis. Lausanne, Switzerland: Université de Lausanne.
Seifert, B. (1996) Formica paralugubris nov. spec.: a sympatric sibling species of Formica lugubris from the western Alps (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Formicoidea: Formicidae). Reichenbachia 31: 193–201.Google Scholar
Seppä, P. (2008) Do ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) need conservation and does ant conservation need genetics?Myrmecological News 11: 161–172.Google Scholar
Skinner, G. J. (1980a) The feeding habits of the wood-ant, Formica rufa (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), in limestone woodland in north-west England. Journal of Animal Ecology 49: 417–433.Google Scholar
Skinner, G. J. (1980b) Territory, trail structure and activity patterns in the wood ant, Formica rufa (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in limestone woodland in north-west England. Journal of Animal Ecology 49: 381–394.Google Scholar
Skinner, G. J. and Whittaker, J. B. (1981) An experimental investigation of inter-relationships between the wood ant (Formica rufa) and some tree-canopy herbivores. Journal of Animal Ecology 50: 313–326.Google Scholar
Sorvari, J. and Hakkarainen, H. (2005) Deforestation reduces nest mound size and decreases the production of sexual offspring in the wood ant Formica aquilonia. Annales Zoologici Fennici 42: 259–267.Google Scholar
Sorvari, J. and Hakkarainen, H. (2007a) Forest clearing and sex ratio in forest-dwelling wood ant Formica aquilonia. Naturwissenschaften 94: 392–395.Google Scholar
Sorvari, J. and Hakkarainen, H. (2007b) Wood ants are wood ants: deforestation causes population declines in the polydomous wood ant Formica aquilonia. Ecological Entomology 32: 707–711.Google Scholar
Sorvari, J. and Hakkarainen, H. (2009) Forest clear-cutting causes small workers in the polydomous wood ant Formica aquilonia. Annales Zoologici Fennici 46: 431–438.Google Scholar
Sorvari, J., Haatanen, M.-K. and Rantala, M. J. (2008) Immune defense of ants is associated with changes in habitat characteristics. Environmental Entomology 37: 51–56.Google Scholar
Sorvari, J., Haatanen, M.-K. and Vesterlund, S.-R. (2011) Combined effects of overwintering temperature and habitat degradation on the survival of boreal wood ant. Journal of Insect Conservation 15: 727–731.Google Scholar
Sorvari, J., Huhta, E. and Hakkarainen, H. (2014) Survival of transplanted nests of the red wood ant Formica aquilonia (Hymenoptera: Formicidae): the effects of intraspecific competition and forest clear-cutting. Insect Science 21: 486–492.Google Scholar
Storer, A. J., Jürgensen, M. F., Risch, A. C., Delisle, J. and Hyslop, M. D. (2008) The fate of an intentional introduction of Formica lugubris to North America from Europe. Journal of Applied Entomology 132: 276–280.Google Scholar
Streit, S., Bock, F., Pirk, C. W. W. and Tautz, J. (2003) Automatic life-long monitoring of individual insect behaviour now possible. Zoology 106: 169–171.Google Scholar
Sudd, J. H., Douglas, J. M., Gaynards, T., Murray, D. M. and Stockdale, J. M. (1977) The distribution of wood ants (Formica lugubris Zetterstedt) in a northern English forest. Ecological Entomology 2: 301–313.Google Scholar
Travan, J. (1996) Die Bestandsaufnahme von Waldameisenvölkern im bayerischen Flach- und Hügelland als Grundlage für deren Schutz durch Forstleute und freiwillige Helfer. Ameisenschutz aktuell 71: 25–32.Google Scholar
Travan, J. (1998) Über den Einfluss von Standortsfaktoren auf die Besiedlung des bayerischen Hochgebirges durch Waldameisen (Formica spp.) (Hymen., Formicidae). Ameisenschutz Schädlingskunde, Pflanzenschutz, Umweltschutz 2: 25–32.Google Scholar
Torossian, C. (1977a) Etude quantitative des fourmis du groupe F. rufa de la Cerdagne et du Capcir. Vie et milieu 27: 243–248.Google Scholar
Torossian, C. (1977b) Les fourmis rousses des bois (Formica rufa), indicateurs biologiques de dégradation des forêts de montagnes des Pyrénées orientales. Bulletin d'Ecologie 8: 333–348.Google Scholar
Wardle, D. A., Hyodo, F., Bardgett, R. D., Yeates, G. W. and Nilsson, M-C. (2011) Long-term aboveground and belowground consequences of red wood ant exclusion in boreal forest. Ecology 92: 645–656.Google Scholar
Welch, R. C. (1978) Changes in the distribution of the nests of Formica rufa L. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) at Blean Woods National Nature Reserve, Kent, during the decade following coppicing. Insectes Sociaux 25: 173–186.Google Scholar
Wellenstein, G. (1968) Schutz der Waldameisennester. Waldarbait. Bd. 19. Nr.10. S251.
Wuorenrinne, H. (1983) Der Einfluss der Waldsplitterung auf Ameisengesellschaften am Beispiel von Espoo (Finland). 2. Leipzig, Germany: Leipziger Symposium urbane Ökologie, pp. 25–30.
Wuorenrinne, H. and Vepsäläinen, K. (1976) Effects of environmental splitting by urbanization of the species of Formica rufa L. group. 2nd International Symposium of the IUSSI, Warszawa-Jablonna: 69–78.Google Scholar
Yao, I. (2012) Seasonal trends in honeydew-foraging strategies in the red wood ant, Formica yessensis (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Sociobiology 59: 1351–1363.Google Scholar
Żmihorski, M. (2010) Distribution of red wood ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in the clear-cut areas of a managed forest in Western Poland. Journal of Forest Research 15: 145–148.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×