Book contents
- Frontmatter
- Dedication
- Contents
- List of contributors
- Foreword
- Acknowledgements
- 1 Introducing wood ants: evolution, phylogeny, identification and distribution
- 2 Wood ant reproductive biology and social systems
- 3 Population genetics of wood ants
- 4 Where and why? Wood ant population ecology
- 5 Colony and species recognition among the Formica ants
- 6 Interspecific competition and coexistence between wood ants
- 7 Wood ant foraging and mutualism with aphids
- 8 Wood ants and their interaction with other organisms
- 9 Contribution of wood ants to nutrient cycling and ecosystem function
- 10 Diversity, ecology and conservation of wood ants in North America
- 11 Sampling and monitoring wood ants
- 12 Threats, conservation and management
- 13 Future directions for wood ant ecology and conservation
- Index
- References
7 - Wood ant foraging and mutualism with aphids
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 June 2016
Book contents
- Frontmatter
- Dedication
- Contents
- List of contributors
- Foreword
- Acknowledgements
- 1 Introducing wood ants: evolution, phylogeny, identification and distribution
- 2 Wood ant reproductive biology and social systems
- 3 Population genetics of wood ants
- 4 Where and why? Wood ant population ecology
- 5 Colony and species recognition among the Formica ants
- 6 Interspecific competition and coexistence between wood ants
- 7 Wood ant foraging and mutualism with aphids
- 8 Wood ants and their interaction with other organisms
- 9 Contribution of wood ants to nutrient cycling and ecosystem function
- 10 Diversity, ecology and conservation of wood ants in North America
- 11 Sampling and monitoring wood ants
- 12 Threats, conservation and management
- 13 Future directions for wood ant ecology and conservation
- Index
- References
Summary
Wood ants are almost unique among insects in having a largely predictable and easily visible pattern of foraging. This is the result of their mutualistic interaction with tree-dwelling aphids and other sap-sucking insects, requiring foragers to travel regularly between the wood ant nest and persistent feeding sites where they collect honeydew from their mutualists. Collected honeydew, and also prey, are shared with nestmates back at the nest; this broadly follows a ‘central-place foraging’ model. Wood ants forage predominately on tree trunks and in tree canopies. The success of wood ants is due, in part, to their highly effective foraging strategy: workers dominate a territory and the food resources in it. For these reasons, foraging behaviour has been a major theme in wood ant research over recent decades.
This chapter reviews the wood ant diet including the mutualism with aphids and other insects, and explores the consequences of this mutualism for host trees and other invertebrates. As in most social insects, only workers forage, but among workers there are further distinctions as to who forages, when they forage, and how they navigate between nest and foraging site. How resources are exploited and transported within wood ant territories, especially for polydomous colonies, provides an insight into how decentralised networks can function efficiently, making wood ants a good case study for transportation networks more generally.
Wood ant diet
Wood ants are omnivorous, thus they practically eat ‘everything’. Generally, two main sources form their diet: honeydew is used mainly as energy for metabolic maintenance, whereas insect prey and scavenged material is used to provide protein for rearing the brood (Lange 1960). In addition, minor contributions are made by the collection of seeds and the consumption of tree sap and berry juices (Wellenstein 1952; Rosengren and Sundström 1991; Otto 2005).
Honeydew forms the largest component of the wood ant diet, estimated as contributing between 62% (Wellenstein 1952) and 94% (Rosengren and Sundström 1991) of food brought into a nest (Figure 7.1). Estimates of the quantity of honeydew collected annually per wood ant nest vary greatly depending on ant species and location, and presumably also on the study methods.
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- Wood Ant Ecology and Conservation , pp. 145 - 176Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2016
References
, and (1993) Branching angles of ant trunk trails as an optimization cue. Journal of Theoretical Biology 160: 297–310.Google Scholar
(1966) A critical evaluation of the European research on use of red wood ants (Formica rufa group) for the protection of forests against harmful insects. Zeitschrift für angewandte Entomologie 57: 167–189.Google Scholar
(1959) Food habits of Formica subnitens Creighton (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) at Westbank, British Columbia. Insectes Sociaux 6: 105–114.Google Scholar
and (1969) Relationships between foraging efficiency and the size of the head and component brain and sensory structures in the red wood ant. Brain Research 16: 85–104.Google Scholar
and (1988) How do red wood ants orient during diurnal and nocturnal foraging in a three dimensional system? II. Field experiments. Insectes Sociaux 35: 106–124.Google Scholar
, , and (2007) Ant–aphid interactions: are ants friends, enemies, or both?Annals of the Entomological society of America 100: 887–892.Google Scholar
(1973) Effect of Formica obscuripes (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) on the predator–prey relationship between Hyperaspis congressis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and Toumeyella numismaticum (Homoptera: Coccidae). The Canadian Entomologist 105: 1113–1118.Google Scholar
and (1968) Ants, aphids, and jack pine in Manitoba. The Canadian Entomologist 100: 40–50.Google Scholar
(1979) Aphids visited by Formica lugubris (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) including eleven species new to Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal 19: 349–352.Google Scholar
(2014) Species dossier, range and distribution data for the Hairy Wood Ant, Formica lugubris, in Ireland. Irish Wildlife Manuals 68.Google Scholar
(1976) Studies on Formica lugubris Zetterstedt in Ireland (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). PhD thesis, University College Cork.
and (2015) Aphid identification. Available at: http://influentialpoints.com/Gallery/Aphid_genera.htm.
(1954) Beobachtungen zum Verhalten (insbesondere Tagesrhythmus) der Roten Waldameise (Formica rufa) während des Nahrungserwerbes. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 11: 151–154.Google Scholar
, , , et al. (2009) Shape and efficiency of wood ant foraging networksBehavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 63: 451–460.Google Scholar
and (1995) Wood ants orient to magnetic fields. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 261: 37–41.Google Scholar
and (1980) Relations and aggressivity in Formica lugubris Zett in the Swiss Jura. Insectes Sociaux 27: 277–278.Google Scholar
, and (2006) Fourmis des bois. Lausanne, Switzerland: Musee de Zoologie.
and (2007) Annotated checklist of the ants of the Idaho National Laboratory (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Sociobiology 49: 1–117.Google Scholar
, and (2007) Novel landmark-guided routes in ants. Journal of Experimental Biology 210: 2025–2032.Google Scholar
, and (2014) Efficiency and robustness of ant colony transportation networks. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 68: 509–517.Google Scholar
and (1985) An experimental study of the foraging strategy of the wood ant Formica aquilonia. Animal Behaviour 33: 541–552.Google Scholar
and (1986) The dynamic nature of the activities of the wood ant Formica aquilonia foraging to static food resource within a laboratory habitat. Physiological Entomology 11: 383–395.Google Scholar
and (1989) Conditional mutualism in a membracid–ant association: temporal, age-specific, and density-dependent effects. Ecology 70: 1040–1047.Google Scholar
, and (2001) Foraging efficiency in the wood ant, Formica rufa: is time of the essence in trail following?Animal Behaviour 62: 139–146.Google Scholar
(1971) The role of aphids in wood formation. I. The effect of the sycamore aphid, Dreopanosiphum platanoides (Schr.)(Aphididae), on the growth of sycamore, Acer pseudoplatanus (L.). Journal of Applied Ecology 8: 165–179.Google Scholar
, and , et al. (2009) Foraging activity and dietary spectrum of wood ants (Formica rufa group) and their role in nutrient fluxes in boreal forests. Ecological Entomology 34: 369–377.Google Scholar
, , and , et al. (2011) Sources of variation in the incidence of ant–aphid mutualism in boreal forests. Agricultural and Forest Entomology 13: 239–245.Google Scholar
, and (1984) Cannibalism in the red wood ant, Formica polyctena (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Oecologia 63: 13–22.Google Scholar
and (2007) Kaufman Field Guide to Insects of North America. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
, and (2014) Resource redistribution in polydomous ant nest networks: local or global?Behavioral Ecology 25: 1183–1191.Google Scholar
and (2015) The role of non-foraging nests in polydomous wood ant colonies. PLoS One 10(10): e0138321.Google Scholar
and (2016) Inter-nest food sharing in wood ant colonies: resource redistribution behavior in a complex system. Behavioral Ecology 27(2): 660–668.Google Scholar
(1932) Territory among wood ants (Formica rufa L.) at Picket Hill. Journal of Animal Ecology 1: 69–76.Google Scholar
, , , et al. (2013) The role of wood ants (Formica rufa group) in carbon and nutrient dynamics of a boreal Norway spruce forest ecosystem. Ecosystems 16: 196–208.Google Scholar
(1991) Landmark orientation in natural situations in the red wood ant Formica lugubris Zett. (Hymenoptera Formicidae). Ethology Ecology and Evolution 3: 89–99.Google Scholar
and (1977) Pine seedling growth loss caused by cinaran aphids (Cinara atlantica, Cinara watsoni) in South Carolina. Journal Georgia Entomological Society 12: 29–34.Google Scholar
, , and (2008) Influence of the wood ant, Formica polyctena, on soil nutrient and the spruce tree growth. Journal of Applied Entomology 132: 281–284.Google Scholar
(1915) Life history of Vanduzea arquata Say (Membracidae). Psyche: A Journal of Entomology 22: 183–198.Google Scholar
, and (1992) The allocation of foragers in red wood ants. Ecological Entomology 17: 114–120.Google Scholar
and (2002) View-based navigation in insects: how wood ants (Formica rufa L.) look at and are guided by extended landmarks. Journal of Experimental Biology 205: 2499–2509.Google Scholar
, and (2003) The influence of beacon-aiming on the routes of wood ants. Journal of Experimental Biology 206: 535–541.Google Scholar
, and (2007) Visual cues for the retrieval of landmark memories by navigating wood ants. Current Biology 17: 93–102.Google Scholar
(1976) Sur l'existence d'une piste chimique chez Formica polyctena dans des conditions de vie semi-naturelle. Insectes Sociaux 23: 577–583.Google Scholar
(1974) Worker polyethism related with body size in a polydomous red wood ant, Formica (Formica) yessensis Forel. Journal of the Faculty of Science Hokkaido University Series ⅤI. Zoology 19: 695–705.Google Scholar
(1970) Untersuchungen über den Nahrungserwerb der Waldameisen Formica polyctena (Foerster) im Eichenwald I. Zusammensetzung der Nahrung, Abhängigkeit von Witterungsfaktoren und von der Tageszeit. Oecologia 5: 138–157.Google Scholar
(1972) Untersuchungen über den Nahrungserwerb der Waldameisen Formica polyctena (Foerster) im Eichenwald II. Zusammensetzung der Nahrung, Abhängigkeit von Jahresverlauf und vom Nahrungsangebot. Oecologia 8: 371–390.Google Scholar
(1973) Untersuchungen zur Arbeitsteilung unter den Außendienst‐arbeiterinnen der Waldameise Formica polyctena Foerster. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 32: 532–543.Google Scholar
(1974) Investigations on food consumption of red wood ants (Formica polyctena Foerster) in an oak forest. 3. Annual turnover. Oecologia 15: 187–204.Google Scholar
(1976) Über die Duftspur-orientierung bei Waldameisen (Formica polyctena Foerster). Insectes Sociaux 23: 227–242.Google Scholar
(1982) Die Energiebilanz der Waldameisen (Formica polyctena Foerster). Insectes Sociaux 23: 227–242.Google Scholar
, and (1982) Nahrungsalarm bei Waldameisen (Formica polyctena Förster). Insectes Sociaux 29: 44–66.Google Scholar
(1997) The Earth Dwellers: Adventures in the Land of Ants. New York: Simon and Schuster.
(2000) Differential interactions between an aphid endohyperparasitoid and three honeydew-collecting ant species: a field study of Alloxysta brevis (Thomson) (Hymenoptera: Alloxystidae). Journal of Insect Behavior 13: 771–784.Google Scholar
(1970) Revision of the conifer aphid fauna of Japan (Homoptera, Lachnidae). Bulletin of the Forest Experiment Station, Meguro, Tokyo 228: 57–102.Google Scholar
and (1994) Minimal Networks: The Steiner Problem and its Generalizations, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
and (2012) Forestry alters foraging efficiency and crop contents of aphid-tending red wood ants, Formica aquilonia. PLoS ONE 7: e32817.Google Scholar
and (1985) The distribution of the large pine aphid, Cinara pinea (Mordv.) within the canopy of Scots pine, Pinus sylvestris L. Zeitschrift für angewandte Entomologie 99: 341–350.Google Scholar
, , , et al. (2009) Does the mutualism between wood ants (Formica rufa group) and Cinara aphids affect Norway spruce growth?Forest Ecology and Management 257: 238–243.Google Scholar
and (1978) Assimilateentzug und Zuwachsminderung an Forstpflanzen durch Baumläuse (Lachnidae) unter dem Einfluß von Waldameisen (Formicidae). Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt 97: 1–12.Google Scholar
and (1980) The influence of ants on the survival of mountain birches during an Oporinia autumnata (Lep., Geometridae) outbreak. Oecologia 47: 39–42.Google Scholar
and (1993) Foraging wood-ants Formica aquilonia Yarrow (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) tend to adopt the ideal free distribution. Behavioural Processes 28: 189.Google Scholar
and (1994) Site fidelity in foraging red wood-ants Formica aquilonia Yarrow and its influence on the distribution of foragers in a regeneration environment. Behavioural Processes 31: 309–321.Google Scholar
(1960) Über die Futterweitergabe zwischen Angehörigen verschiedener Waldameisen. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 17: 389–401.Google Scholar
(1967) Die Nahrungsverteilung under den Arbeiterinnen des Waldameisenstaates. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 24: 513–545.Google Scholar
(1985) Seasonal changes in the within-crown distribution of the aphid Cinara pini on Scots pine. Oikos 45: 217–222.Google Scholar
(2003) Response of the foraging behaviour of red wood ants (Formica rufa group) to exclusion from trees. Agricultural and Forest Entomology 5: 183–189.Google Scholar
, and (2009) A motor component to the memories of habitual foraging routes in wood ants?Current Biology 19: 115–121.Google Scholar
, and (2013) Phase-dependent visual control of the zigzag paths of navigating wood ants. Current Biology 23: 2393–2399.Google Scholar
and (1980) The distribution of wood ant nests and their seasonal aboveground activity in a part of a north Yorkshire forest. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 12: 39–45.Google Scholar
(1979) Nest splitting by the red wood ant (Formica polyctena Foerster). Netherlands Journal of Zoology 29: 109–125.Google Scholar
(1978) Some ant–aphid associations in Manitoba with observations on interactions between Formica oreas comptula Wheeler and aphids at Birds Hill Park, Manitoba. MSc thesis, University of Manitoba.
and (1993) Do birch trees (Betula pendula) grow better if foraged by wood ants?Journal of Animal Ecology 62: 101–116.Google Scholar
, , , and (2013) Ants protect conifer seedlings from feeding damage by the pine weevil Hylobius abietis. Agricultural and Forest Entomology 15: 98–105.Google Scholar
and (1993) A size-distance relation in Homoptera-tending thatch ants (Formica obscuripes, Formica planipilis). Insectes Sociaux 40: 207–218.Google Scholar
(2000a) Mechanisms and density dependence of benefit in an ant-membracid mutualism. Ecology 81: 482–489.Google Scholar
(2000b) Survivorship of an ant‐tended membracid as a function of ant recruitment. Oikos 90: 469–476.Google Scholar
(1956a) Der Massenwechsel einiger Honigtau liefernden Baumläuse im Jahre 1954. Insectes Sociaux 3: 75–91.Google Scholar
(1956b) Können Honigtau liefernde Baumläuse (Lachnidae) ihre Wirtspflanzen schädigen?Zeitschrift für angewandte Entomologie 39: 168–177.Google Scholar
(1958) Zur Kenntnis der Schäden, die Lachniden an ihren Wirtsbäumen hervorrufen können. Zeitschrift für angewandte Entomologie 42: 284–291.Google Scholar
(1961) Vorausschau und Erkundung von Waldtrachten. Symposia Genetica et Biologica Italica 11: 85–103.Google Scholar
(1993) Entrainment of the circadian rhythm of locomotor activity in wood ants by temperature. Animal Behaviour 45: 393–397.Google Scholar
(1994) The influence of ant attendance on larval parasitism in hawthorn psyllids (Homoptera: Psyllidae). Oecologia 99: 72–78.Google Scholar
(2005) Ant–aphid interactions in multispecies ant communities: some ecological and ethological aspects. European Journal of Entomology 102: 495–501.Google Scholar
(1930) Wieviel ‘Blattlauszucker’ verbraucht die rote Waldameise (Formica rufa)?Biologisches Zentralblatt 50: 449–459.Google Scholar
(1958 )Über die Arbeitsteilung im Staate von Formica rufa rufo-pratensis minor Gössw. und ihre Verhaltensphysiologischen Grundlagen: Ein Beitrag zur Biologie der Roten Waldameise. Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
(2005) Die Roten Waldameisen. Hohenwarsleben, Germany: Westarp Wissenschaften.
(2014) A qualitative and quantitative assessment and narrative of Formica mounding behaviors influencing litter decomposition in a dry, interior Douglas-fir forest in British Columbia. MSc thesis, University of British Colombia.
and (1989) Competition Hierarchies in Ant Communities (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). Poland: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe.
, and (2004) The impact of wood ants (Hymenoptera : Formicidae) on the structure of invertebrate community on mountain birch (Betula pubescens ssp. czerepanovii). Annales Zoologici Fennici 41: 429–446.Google Scholar
(2011) Division of labour and communication at the individual level in highly social Formica ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). Russian Entomological Journal 20: 315–319.Google Scholar
(2014) Polydomy: the organisation and adaptive function of complex nest systems in ants. Current Opinion in Insect Science 5: 37–43.Google Scholar
, and (2008) The use of native and non-native tree species for foraging and nesting habitat by the wood-ant Formica lugubris (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Myrmecological News 11: 1–7.Google Scholar
(1971) Route fidelity, visual memory and recruitment behaviour in foraging wood ants. Acta Zoologica Fennica 133: 1–106.Google Scholar
(1977a) Foraging strategy of wood ants (Formica rufa group) I. Age polyethism and topographic traditions. Acta Zoologica Fennica 150: 1–30.Google Scholar
(1977b) Foraging strategy of wood ants (Formica rufa group). II. Nocturnal orientation and diel periodicity. Acta Zoologica Fennica 150: 1–30.Google Scholar
and (1986) Light: dark-induced activity rhythms in Formica ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Entomologia Generalis 11: 221–228.Google Scholar
and (1978) Effect of winter timber felling on behaviour of foraging wood ants (Formica rufa group) in early spring. Memorabilia Zoologica 29: 143–155.Google Scholar
and (1987) The foraging system of a red wood ant colony (Formica s. str.) – collecting and defending food through an extended phenotype. In and (eds), From Individual to Collective Behavior in Social Insects. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhäuser Verlag, pp. 117–137.
and (1991) The interaction between red wood ants Cinara aphids, and pines. A ghost of mutualism past. In and (eds), Ant–Plant Interactions. Oxford, UK: Oxford Scientific Publications, pp. 80–91.
, and (1979) Distribution, nest densities, and ecological significance of wood ants (the Formica rufa group) in Finland. Bulletin SROP 2–3: 181–213.Google Scholar
(1979) Langjährige Erfahrungen über die Auswirkungen der Waldameisen und ihres Lachnidenbesuches auf das Baumwachstum; dazu Beziehungen zwischen Waldameisen und Waldhonigtracht, Borkenkäfern, Wild und Vögeln, nebst Bemerkungen zur Varros-Milbe. Waldhygiene 13: 109–120.Google Scholar
and (2001) Memory of location and site recognition in the ant Formica uralensis (Hymenoptera : Formicidae). Ethology 107: 737–752.Google Scholar
and (1989) Niche differentiation of ant species within territories of the wood ant Formica polyctena. Oikos 56: 3–16.Google Scholar
(1964) Zur Biologie einiger Fichten bewohnenden Lachnidenarten (Homoptera, Aphidina). Zeitschrift für angewandte Entomologie 53: 153–178.Google Scholar
(1993) Die Bedeutung der Formiciden für die Lachniden. Ameisenschutz Aktuell 7: 69–75.Google Scholar
(1958) Zur forstlichen Bedeutung der Nadelholz-Lachniden (Homopt.: Aphid.: Lachnidae). Anzeiger für Schädlingskunde 31: 38–40.Google Scholar
(1992) Mutualistic interactions of the aphid Lachnus allegheniensis (Homoptera: Aphididae) and its tending ant Formica obscuripes (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America 85: 173–178.Google Scholar
(2000) Herbivory on willows: abiotic constraints and trophic interactions. PhD, University of Joensuu.
(2002) Contrasting effects of ants on the herbivory and growth of two willow species. Ecology 83: 2680–2690.Google Scholar
(1980a) Territory, trail structure and activity patterns in the wood-ant, Formica rufa (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in limestone woodland in north-west England. Journal of Animal Ecology 49: 381–394.Google Scholar
(1980b) The feeding habits of the wood ant, Formica rufa (Hymenoptera, Formicidae), in Limestone woodland in north-west England. Journal of Animal Ecology 49: 417–433 590.5.Google Scholar
and (1981) An experimental investigation of inter-relationships between the wood ant (Formica rufa) and some tree-canopy herbivores. Journal of Animal Ecology 50: 313–326.Google Scholar
and (2001) Aphid‐induced reduction of shoot and root growth in Douglas‐fir seedlings. Ecological Entomology 26: 411–416.Google Scholar
and (1987) Vergleichende Untersuchungen zum Beuteeintrag der Waldameisen (Genus: Formica, Hymenoptera) in der Bredstedter Geest (Schleswig‐Holstein). Journal of Applied Entomology 103: 153–177.Google Scholar
(2009) Foraging distances and potentiality in forest pest insect control: an example with two candidate ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Myrmecological News 12: 211–215.Google Scholar
and (2005) Ecology and evolution of aphid–ant interactions. Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics 36: 345–372.Google Scholar
(1978) Food and feeding of ants. In (ed.), Production Ecology of Ants and Termites. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 81–106.
, and (2008) Foraging: Behaviour and Ecology. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
(1983) The distribution of foraging wood-ants (Formica lugubris Zett) in relation to the distribution of aphids. Insectes Sociaux 30: 298–307.Google Scholar
and (1985) Seasonal changes in the response of wood ants (Formica lugubris) to sucrose baits. Ecological Entomology 10: 89–97.Google Scholar
(2006) Numerical assessment affects aggression and competitive ability: a team-fighting strategy for the ant Formica xerophila. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B 273: 2737–2742.Google Scholar
(2008) Resource characteristics and competition affect colony and individual foraging strategies of the wood ant Formica integroides. Ecological Entomology 33: 127–136.Google Scholar
and (1984) Myrmecophily in the Edward's hairstreak butterfly Satyrium edwardsii (Lycaenidae). Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society 38: 124–133.Google Scholar
(1952) Zur Ernahrungsbiologie der Roten Waldameise. Zeitschrift für Pflanzenkrankheiten, Pflanzenpathologie und Pflanzenschutz 59: 430–445.Google Scholar
(1954) Die Insektenjagd der Roten Waldameise. Zeitschrift für Angewandte Entomologie 36: 185–217.Google Scholar
(1957) Die Beeinflussung der forstlichen Arthropodenfauna durch Waldameisen (Formica rufa Gruppe), I. Teil. Zeitschrift für angewandte Entomologie 41: 368–385.Google Scholar
(1980) Auswirkung hügelbauender Waldameisen der Formica rufa‐Gruppe auf forstschädliche Raupen und das Wachstum der Waldbäume. Zeitschrift für angewandte Entomologie 89: 144–157.Google Scholar
and (1968) Vergleichende qualitative Untersuchungen über die Beute der Ameisenarten Formica polyctena Foerster und Coptoformica exsecta (Nylander). Waldhygiene 7: 220–226.Google Scholar
and (1986) The Ants of Nevada. Los Angeles, CA: Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County.
(1991) Effect of ants on temperate woodland trees. In and (eds), Ant–Plant Interactions. Oxford, UK: Oxford Science Publications, pp. 67–79.
and (1985) An experimental field study of different levels of insect herbivory induced by Formica rufa predation on sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus) III. Effects on tree growth. Journal of Applied Ecology 22: 797–811.Google Scholar
, , , and (1978) Formica integra 2. Feeding, trophallaxis, and interspecific confrontation behavior. Florida Entomologist 61: 179–187.Google Scholar
and (2001) Biodiversity consequences of predation and host plant hybridization on an aphid–ant mutualism. Ecology 82: 440–452.Google Scholar
, and (2000) The size-distance relationship in the wood ant Formica rufa. Ecological Entomology 25: 226–233.Google Scholar
, , and (2009) Potential exposure of a classical biological control agent of the soybean aphid, Aphis glycines, on non-target aphids in North America. Biological Invasions 11: 857–871.Google Scholar
and (2002) Flexibility in the composition and concentration of amino acids in honeydew of the drepanosiphid aphid Tuberculatus quercicola. Ecological Entomology 27: 745–752.Google Scholar
(1980) Observer ants: storers of foraging area information in Formica rufa L. (Formicidae, Hymenoptera). Insectes Sociaux 27: 203–211.Google Scholar
and (2014) Ants under the conditions of an extremely hot summer. Entomological Review 94: 526–540.Google Scholar
(1954) Versuche zur Feststellung des Honigtauertrages von Fichtenbeständen mit Hilfe von Waldameisen. Zeitschrift für angewandte Entomologie 36: 358–362.Google Scholar
(1956) Der Honigtau als Nahrung der Insekten: Teil I. Zeitschrift für angewandte Entomologie 38: 369–416.Google Scholar
(1957) Die Rolle des Waldhonigtaus im Nahrungshaushalt forstlich nützlicher Insekten. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt 76: 24–34.Google Scholar
- 17
- Cited by