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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 17 February 2015
Sévère Courtois's modest ambition was to revolutionize the world. “It is man's holy cause and duty to protect and aid the defense and to establish Independence in all the Universe,” he instructed his brother Joseph in October 1821. At the time, the Courtois brothers were a mere hundred miles apart; Sévère had set up an independent government on Providencia Island, in the western Caribbean, and Joseph was embarking on a political career of his own in Port-au-Prince, Haiti. Though the two brothers were born in the French colony of St. Domingue, the tumults of the Age of Revolutions had swept them away from their native island. At the time Sévère penned the letter urging his brother to support his universal liberation enterprise, Joseph had just come back from fighting in the Napoleonic wars in Europe. Sévère had participated in multiple revolutionary coups and moved from New Orleans to Cartagena, and from there to Texas and then Florida.
I would like to thank Kathleen Brown, Daniel Richter, and Katie Paugh, the members and participants in the McNeil Center for Early American Studies, the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Cultures colloquium, and the Association for Caribbean Historians, as well as the reviewers and editors of The Americas for their comments, criticism, and advice on this piece.
1. Sévère Courtois to Joseph Courtois, October 15, 1821, Secretaria de Guerra y Marina [hereafter SGM], torn. 343, f. 1032, Archivo General de la Nación, Colombia [hereafter AGNC].
2. Expression is found in Darrell Meadows, R., “Engineering Exile: Social Networks and the French Atlantic Community, 1789–1809,” French Historical Studies 23:1 (2000), p. 647.Google Scholar Most of the scholarship has focused on the St. Dominguan diaspora in the United States. See , Lachance, Paul, “Politics of Fear: French Laws and Slave Trade, 1786–1809,” Plantation Society 1 (1979), pp. 162–197;Google Scholar Hunt, Alfred N., Haiti’s Influence on Antebellum America: Slumbering Volcano in the Caribbean (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988);Google Scholar White, Ashli, Encountering Revolution: Haiti and the Making of the Early Republic (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010);Google Scholar Geggus, David, “The Slave Leaders in Exile: Spain’s Resettlement of Its Black Auxiliary Troops,” Haitian Revolutionary Studies (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), pp. 179–203;Google Scholar and Brasseaux, Carl A. and Conrad, Glenn R., eds., The Road to Louisiana: the Saint-Domingue Refugees, 1792–1809 (Lafayette: University of Southwestern Louisiana/Center for Louisiana Studies, 1992).Google Scholar Three essays by Branson, Susan and Patrick, Leslie, Lachance, Paul, and Geggus, David appear in The Impact of the Haitian Revolution on the Atlantic World, Geggus, David, ed. (Columbia: University of South Carolina, 2001).Google Scholar
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14. “Arrêté portant défense aux Noirs, mulâtres et autres gens de couleur d’entrer sans autorisation sur le territoire continental de la République,” July 1802, reprinted in Bénot and Dorigny, 1802: rétablissement, p. 564.
15. These words were reported by one of the pensionnaires, Blaise Lechat, to Placide and Isaac L’Ouverture, July 10, 1814, and reproduced by Le Gorgeu, G., Étude sur Jean–Baptiste Coisnon (Vire: A. Guérin, 1881), p. 67.Google Scholar
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36. Narrett, David, “José Bernardo Gutiérrez de Lara: Caudillo of the Mexican Republic in Texas,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 105 (October 2002), pp. 194–228;Google Scholar Garrett, Julia, “The First Constitution of Texas, April 17, 1813,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 40 (1937), pp. 290–308.Google Scholar The presence of armed black men in the expedition made some U.S. Americans uncomfortable and a campaign was launched through papers and pamphlets in the Louisiana/Texas region to undermine Gutierrez’s legitimacy, overplaying the influence of foreigners, “Napoleonic agents,” and his association with men of color like Savary.
37. Sévère Courtois to General Santander, May 30, 1823, cited in Verna, Pétion, p. 295.
38. War of 1812 service records, 2 Batt’n [D’Aquin’s] Militia, National Archives, Service records of volunteer soldiers who served during the War of 1812 in the state of Louisiana, Washington, D.C., roll boxes 47 and 87.
39. Savary, Joseph et al. to Jackson, Andrew, Orleans, New, March 16, 1815, in The Papers of Andrew Jackson, Moser, Harold, Hoth, David, MacPherson, Sharon, and Reinbold, John, eds. (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1991), vol. 3, p. 315.Google Scholar
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53. Courtois to Mademoiselle Mimi Florette, October 19, 1821, SGM, torn. 343, fol. 1038, AGNC.
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69. Sévère Courtois accused one of Lacroix’s followers of calling him a mulatto. Deposition of JeanLouis Dutrieu aboard the Amazon, August 9, 1822, SGM, fol. 1041, AGNC.
70. “Acusación documentada que hizo al tribunal de censura el día 26 abril de 1823, Severo Courtois del artículo firmado ‘El Censor’” (Cartagena: Imprenta del Gobierno, 1823), Archivo Histórico Restrepo, fondo II, vol. 51, fol. 106–107.
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78. Alexandria Gazette, December 28, 1819.