Consumers now demand evidence of welfare assurance at all stages of animal production, marketing, transport and slaughter. In response, retailers have increasingly adopted preferred supply chain relationships which preclude sourcing animals via livestock auction markets. One of the criteria dictating this action is a perceived improvement in animal welfare resulting from direct transport from farm to abattoir.

A survey of complete journey structures of 18 393 slaughterweight lambs from farm to abattoir was conducted between April and July 1997. Journeys were characterized in terms of distances travelled, duration and the number of discrete components within a whole journey which comprised: transport; trans-shipping (when animals were transferred from one vehicle to another); multiple pickups from a number of farms; and holding at either assembly points, lairages or auction markets. The results identified that journeys in the livestock distribution system are diverse and range in complexity, irrespective of marketing channel. Journey complexity was found to be positively related to distance travelled.

The study demonstrates that discussions concerning welfare of livestock in transit should consider the journey structure and not just the marketing channel per se. Furthermore, it also shows that changes taking place in the infrastructure of the marketing and meat processing sectors may result in a reduction in animal welfare.

With this edition, Animal Welfare enters its ninth year. The journal's circulation continues to increase. Currently, it is taken up in 36 countries and subscribers include 147 university and college departments and libraries. The growth is a reflection of the increasing interest in, and appreciation of the importance of, the scientific approach to animal welfare around the world. There are many important problems but a thorough understanding of animals’ needs, and how these can be met in practice, is required if progress is to be made.

The presence of human visitors has been shown to affect the behaviour of several different mammalian species in a number of different zoos, but the behavioural changes observed are not always consistent with a simple ‘stressful influence’ explanation. Data for non-primate species are too sparse to draw meaningful conclusions; but for primates, the evidence reviewed in this paper allows several hypotheses to be tested. Neither a social facilitation nor an audience attraction hypothesis can be generally supported by the available studies. However, these studies are consistent with a general stressful influence hypothesis, although the extent of this influence is itself affected by other variables, notably species and housing differences. There is some evidence that chronic exposure to human audiences may lessen this stressful influence in some species; and in certain circumstances (notably where some members of the public throw food) the effect of the audience is almost an enriching one.

Shackling of commercial poultry involves the insertion of each leg into parallel metal slots and holding the bird inverted for a period of time before stunning and slaughter. Nociceptors signalling noxious stimulation of the skin have been identified in the beak and feathered skin but not in the scaly skin of the leg. The physiological properties of the C-fibre mechanothermal (CMT) nociceptors in the skin over the tarsometatarsus in the lower leg were studied in response to quantitative mechanical stimulation. The electrical activity was recorded from single C-fibres dissected from the parafibular nerve in anaesthetized animals. The receptive fields of these receptors were small and spot-like, measuring in the region of 1-3 mm in diameter. The threshold to mechanical stimuli ranged from 0.8-15 g using von Frey filaments, and from 3-33 g using a 0.5mm probe mounted on a feedback-controlled stimulator. Stimulus response curves using a ramp-and-hold stimulus were recorded for a number of fibres. After comparing these threshold measurements and the stimulus response data with previous measurements of the force applied to the legs during shackling, it was concluded that shackling is likely to be a very painful procedure.

The effect of degree of isolation on the behaviour of weaned piglets was investigated using eight replicates of littermates, weaned at 4 weeks and caged for 2 weeks in metabolism chambers under varying degrees of isolation: i) fully isolated without physical contact with littermates; ii) partly isolated with limited physical contact with littermates; or iii) grouped with three littermates. The behaviour of the piglets was video recorded from 0700h-2230h on days 1, 6 and 13 post-weaning. In addition, a test of behavioural reactivity towards a novel environment/object was performed on day 8.

Irrespective of degree, isolation initially increased the occurrence of behavioural indicators of stress such as the frequency of pawing and escape attempts as well as decreasing the frequency of play. In partly isolated piglets this initial response was more active than in fully isolated piglets, indicating an increased frustration with isolation. Within 2 weeks, however, the stress response in partly isolated piglets had almost completely waned, and they showed only a decreased frequency of play behaviour, whereas in fully isolated piglets an increased frequency of pawing as well as a more pronounced reduction of play behaviour were still evident on day 13. Both isolation treatments resulted in markedly lower reactivity in a novel environment, seen as fewer squares crossed and fewer vocalizations.

It is concluded that social isolation of newly weaned piglets is stressful. Although it may increase the initial stress response, provision of social contact with littermates, eg through wire mesh, might limit negative long-term effects of isolation in experiments where data collection requires individual housing.

In southwestern England, red deer, Cervus elaphus, are culled by rifle (‘stalking’) or by hunting with hounds (‘hunting’). We compare the welfare costs of the two culling methods. Observations of hunts revealed that likely stressors such as close proximity to humans and hounds, active pursuit, noise, obstruction and physical restraint prior to despatch were very common. Other stressors, such as wounding, were rare. The blood profiles of hunted deer were compared both with injured deer, which were put down because they were thought to be suffering, and with stags stalked in the rutting season, when mature males rapidly lose weight and may be damaged in fights. Extensively hunted deer did not differ from severely injured deer in measures of muscle disruption: in hunted deer measures of red blood cell damage and psychological stress were higher. Hunted stags killed during the rut showed markedly higher levels of measures of blood and muscle cell disruption, psychological stress and fat reserve mobilization than stalked stags killed during this season. Estimates of wounding rates by stalkers showed that 11 per cent of deer required two or more shots to kill, 7 per cent took 2—15 min to die and 2 per cent escaped wounded. Overall, we judged that the welfare costs associated with hunting red deer were higher than those associated with stalking, and reducing the welfare costs associated with hunting was much less feasible than reducing those associated with stalking.

Municipal regulations and humane movement policies often restrict or discourage the use of ‘exotic’ species as companion animals. However, confusion arises because the term ‘exotic’ is used in various ways, and because classifying species as exotic or non-exotic does not satisfactorily distinguish suitable from unsuitable companion animals. Even among commonly kept species, some appear to be much more suitable than others. Instead, decisions about suitable companion animal species need to be based on a number of relevant issues. As ethical criteria, we considered that keeping a companion animal should not jeopardize - and ideally should enhance - its welfare, as well as that of its owner; and that keeping a companion animal should not incur any appreciable harm or risk of harm to the community or the environment. These criteria then served as the basis for identifying and organizing the various concerns that may arise over keeping a species for companionship. Concerns include how the animals are procured and transported, how well their needs can be met in captivity, whether the animal poses any danger to others, and whether the animal might cause environmental damage. These concerns were organized into a checklist of questions that form a basis for assigning species to five proposed categories reflecting their suitability as companion animals. This assessment framework could be used in creating policy or regulations, and to create educational and decision-making tools for pet retailers, animal adoption workers, and potential owners, to help prevent animals from being placed in unsuitable circumstances.

This study is an assessment of the use of mealworm dispensers as environmental enrichment devices for Rodrigues fruit bats (Pteropus rodncensis). Captive animals frequently receive easily consumed food at set times and locations, which often minimizes the time they spend searching for and processing food. The mealworm dispensers used in this study provide an unpredictable food source, which allows the link between foraging and feeding to be reinstated. Mealworm dispensers were placed into the Rodrigues fruit bat enclosure at the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust and the behaviour of the bats recorded over 14 days. For 7 days the dispensers were empty but, for the remaining 7, 20 mealworms were placed in each dispenser. The number of bats feeding declined with increasing time from initial food presentation in all cases, but the presence of mealworms in the dispensers decreased the rate of decline. In addition, the number of bats active within 20cm of the food in the dishes and on the heater tops increased significantly when mealworms were present. Although the presence of mealworms had no effect on the number of flights made by the group of bats as a whole, both the number of bats on the enclosure floor and the amount of aggression observed in the enclosure decreased when mealworms were present.

Installation of mealworm dispensers meant that the bats found food items as a consequence of their natural exploratory and foraging behaviour, and as such they provided important ingredients for approximating a natural habitat and improving welfare.

Repetitive ‘stereotyped’ behaviours are often performed by both wild and domestic rodents in small laboratory cages. In this study, a behaviour resembling a backwards somersault or backflip is described and quantified in captive roof rats (ship or black rats, Rattus rattus). Videotapes of captive-bred rat pups showed that repetitive backflipping developed rapidly after weaning. In all subjects, the behaviour was highly cyclical, with more than 90 per cent occurring during the dark phase of the light:dark cycle. Individual variability in the performance of backflipping was considerable but performance levels for each individual were consistent from day to day and at 30 and 60 days of age. Highly significant differences were found between litters (families), indicating important maternal and/or genetic effects on performance levels. Cage enrichment in the form of a wooden nest box resulted in dramatically lower rates of performance. Increased cage height resulted in delayed development of backflipping, as well as changes in the form of the behaviour. Results are consistent with the hypothesis that the development and expression of backflipping in young roof rats may be triggered by weaning and maintained by a heightened state of arousal in a relatively impoverished environment with limited opportunities for perceptual and locomotor stimulation.

This study examined the effects of enriching the environment on the learning abilities of growing pigs. Eighty-four pigs were housed in either barren or enriched environments from birth to 14 weeks. The barren environments were defined as intensive housing and the enriched environments incorporated extra space, including areas which contained peat and straw in a rack. The learning abilities of pigs from both environments were tested at 15-17 weeks using an operant task which involved pigs learning to push a panel for a reward and a maze test which involved spatial learning. Pigs from enriched environments learned both the operant task and the maze task more rapidly than their counterparts from barren environments. These results suggest that the cognitive development of pigs may be impaired in intensive housing systems.

The present experiment compared the fear-related behaviour of a mouse strain selected over 101 generations for high litter size with that of a randomly selected strain. The H-strain, selected for large litter size, has a mean (± SD) litter size at birth of 21.5 ± 3.5 pups. The randomly bred C-strain has a mean (± SD) litter size of 9.6 ± 2.2 pups. The elevated plus-maze, the light:dark test and a resident:intruder test were used to measure how the mice responded to novelty. In the elevated plus-maze, a well-validated model of animal anxiety, the H-strain was significantly more anxious (having a lower percentage of entries into open arms) than the C-strain at 9 weeks of age. In the light: dark test, in which the light levels were similar to those in the home environment, the H-strain did not differ significantly from the C-strain in its avoidance of the brightest area. In the resident: intruder test, where aggression-trained, older H-strain males were the residents, 11-week-old intruding mice of the C-strain spent a higher percentage of their time in flight and immobility than intruders of the H-strain. There were clear anxiety- and fear-related differences between the strains, which may be related to their selection history. The results illustrate a need for further studies on the consequences of selection for increased production for the ability of animals to adapt to their home environment and cope with environmental changes.

Finding a responsible method of population control that does not compromise animal welfare is a pressing problem for zoological institutions and conservation breeding programmes. This is exemplified by the conservation breeding programme of the golden-headed lion tamarin, Leontopithecus chrysomelas. The number of golden-headed lion tamarins in captivity is currently being limited by, among other means, the use of contraception. We have conducted a study on the effects of contraceptive methods used in golden-headed lion tamarins. Data were collected through the distribution of a survey. The use of Melengestrol acetate (MGA) implants in females was by far the most widespread contraceptive method. It was very effective in preventing reproduction, provided that females were not pregnant at the time of implantation. Pregnancies that had commenced before MGA implantation were carried to term and resulted in viable infants, as far as noted. However, the degree of reversibility was very low and, if females did conceive after MGA implantation, infant survival was lower than expected. The widespread use of MGA implants in golden-headed lion tamarins (and probably other species) should be seriously reconsidered. Alternative methods of population control should be investigated. Possible options include the use of other contraceptive methods, limiting the number of offspring through natural factors and the use of euthanasia under very strict conditions. Animal welfare implications associated with the use of euthanasia are discussed.

In recent years, a possible defect in vitamin A metabolism in recessive white canaries (Serinus canaria,) has been repeatedly discussed. It has widely been accepted that a reduced absorption of carotenoids from the small intestine results in an insufficient synthesis of vitamin A. Moreover, the uptake of vitamin A from the lower intestine has also been discussed.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the utilization of ß-carotene and vitamin A by recessive white canaries (in comparison to coloured ones) as well as to quantify the accretion of vitamin A in the liver and vitamin A levels in plasma and fat tissues of canaries fed different doses of ß-carotene (≍ 6000iu vitamin A kg−1 diet) vs vitamin A (6000 or 18 000iu kg−1 diet).

The results were as follows:

• i) coloured canaries supplied exclusively with ß-carotene maintained normal vitamin A levels in the liver. These data indicated that conversion rates of ß-carotene to vitamin A (as established for poultry) were appropriate;

• ii) recessive white canaries were totally unable to utilize ß-carotene (based on vitamin A levels in blood, liver and fat);

• iii) in comparison to coloured canaries, their efficiency in utilizing retinol was significantly lower. They needed three times the vitamin A intake of coloured canaries to achieve the same vitamin A levels in the liver;

• iv) plasma vitamin A levels in coloured canaries did not reflect the vitamin A supply, but this blood level could be used to determine vitamin A status in recessive white birds.

Recommendations of vitamin A supplements for recessive white canaries should be given based on these data.

In order to be suitable, a contraceptive method should have little or no effects on social organization or behaviour. In callitrichids, changes in socio-sexual interactions between group members, due to hormonal changes induced by contraception, may have consequences for the reproductive inhibition of offspring in their natal group. This may lead to an increased rate of inbreeding. In this paper we report on the endocrinological and behavioural effects of contraception in golden-headed lion tamarins, using data obtained through a world survey and an observational study. Hormonal analysis of urinary oestrone conjugate levels in melengestrol acetate (MGA)-implanted females confirmed earlier preliminary findings (Van Elsacker et al 1994): MGA implants inhibited reproduction through the suppression of ovulation and regular ovarian cycles in the implanted female, while the occurrence of ovarian cycles in the oldest female offspring of each group was not affected. Sexual interactions between the dominant adults still occurred but underwent temporal changes. Reproductive inhibition in female offspring was maintained. Social interactions between group members altered in a non-consistent way but did not have an impact on the stability of the study groups during the study. In principle, MGA implants do not have a detrimental impact on the behaviour of group members. The suitability of MGA implants from a behavioural point of view depends on the extent to which those involved wish to preserve the entire range of natural behaviours for this species. The behavioural effects of other contraceptive methods are still largely unknown.

The objective of this study was to assess the effect of providing mats in the farrowing pen on behaviour and lesions in sows (n = 38) and piglets. Nineteen of the sows and their litters housed in farrowing crates with metal slatted floors were provided with mats, the remaining 19 acting as controls. Sow skin was inspected pre-farrowing and at weaning: the skin and feet of piglets were examined when they were 6 days old. Skin lesions were scored (on a scale of 0 to 6) according to severity. Total lesion scores per sow and median total lesion scores per litter were calculated. Sow behaviour was recorded by direct observation at feeding. Usage of a heat pad for lying in the presence or absence of mats was assessed over a 2hr observation period. Median skin lesion scores of sows did not differ between treatments. Litters from the control treatment had lower skin lesion scores (median [range] 8 [2-12] vs 10 [5-21]; P < 0.05). Median lesion scores of the front legs tended to be higher for piglets on mats (median [range] 8 [1.5-13] vs 4 [1.5-8]; ns). Sows on metal flooring went from kneeling to lowering their hindquarters faster (median [range] 15 [2—45] s) than sows on mats (23 [11—54] s) (P < 0.05). Furthermore, they slipped more on their front (median [range] 2.7 [0-8.7] vs 0 [0-1.3] slips min1; P < 0.001) and hind (median [range] 5.3 [0.3-31.7] vs 1.9 [0-33.3] slips min1; P < 0.05) feet while standing, than sows on mats. More piglets lay on the heat pad when it was covered by a mat (mean ± SEM 45.97 ± 4.49 %) than when no mat was provided (29.29 ± 4.47 %)(P < 0.05). Mats improve sow comfort and reduce slipping. They encourage piglets to lie on the heat pad but cause damage to the skin of the front legs. Providing pigs with mats in the farrowing house could greatly improve welfare on slatted floors, but further research is needed to identify materials that are less abrasive.

The within-farm prevalence of vulva biting in breeding sows in south-west England was investigated using a postal survey sent to 410 pig farmers in January 1997. The response rate was 65 per cent and there were 83 useable replies. The majority of farms where vulva biting was reported indicated a low within-farm prevalence of 1-9 per cent of sows affected, although prevalences as high as 30-60 per cent were reported. The injuries reported ranged from bleeding to removal of the whole vulva, the most commonly reported injuries being bleeding and superficial damage to the vulva. No long-term effects from this injury to service and dry sows were reported by 70 per cent and 76 per cent of farmers respectively. Competition for food, aggressive sows, closeness to farrowing and mixing of sows were the most common reasons suggested by these farmers as causes of vulva biting.

Four groups of dogs, which had been subjected to housing conditions of varying quality for years, were assumed to experience different levels of stress. The groups were compared for behavioural and hormonal parameters in order to identify measures that indicate chronic stress in the dog and which may help to identify poor welfare in this species. As a standard for comparison, one of the four groups was composed of privately owned dogs; we assumed that chronic stress levels were relatively low in this group (GI). The three remaining groups of dogs (GII, Gill and GIV) were kept under conditions of low to relatively high austerity, and had basal urinary ratios of Cortisol to creatinine, adrenaline to creatinine and, to a lesser extent, noradrenaline to creatinine, that varied from low to high, respectively. Significant differences (P < 0.05) were found in Cortisol to creatinine ratios when comparing GI to GII, GUI and GIV and when GII was compared to GIV. Statistical analyses indicated that the mean adrenaline to creatinine ratio in GI differed from that in the remaining groups and that the ratio in GII differed from that in GUI. Noradrenaline to creatinine ratios differed significantly only between GI and GUI. Dopamine to creatinine ratios and noradrenaline to adrenaline ratios did not differ significantly between groups. When dogs were not disturbed, those that were kept under the most austere conditions typically had high levels of locomotor activity, nosing, urinating and paw lifting. After mild disturbance by a slamming door or in the presence of a researcher these animals reacted actively, with increased locomotor activity, circling and nosing, and they showed high levels of behaviours that have previously been associated with acute stress: body shaking, yawning, ambivalent postures and displacement behaviours. Chronic stress in dogs may be identified by increased paw lifting when animals are not disturbed and by ample behavioural expressions of arousal when they are mildly stimulated. Since some behaviours may occur in contexts not related to stress, behavioural data are easily misinterpreted with regard to chronic stress. Interpretation will only be meaningful when physiological measures such as urinary adrenaline to creatinine ratios and, especially, urinary Cortisol to creatinine ratios are also determined.

It has been claimed that the present farming environment does not meet foxes’ needs for social behaviour. In this study we measured the welfare of farmed blue foxes, Alopex lagopus, housed in two different social and spatial conditions: i) traditional housing (group T) where a male and a female cub were housed together and their vixen alone in standard (1.2m2) fox cages; and ii) family housing (group F) where a vixen and her five cubs were housed together in a connected six-cage system (7.2m2). Production-related welfare parameters (weight gain and the incidence of bite wounds on fur) as well as physiological ones (adrenal mass and serum Cortisol response to ACTH administration) were measured in these two groups.

No differences were found in any of the measured parameters between the vixens housed in traditional and family units. In cubs, there was less difference between the sexes in weight gain in group F than in group T, and a significantly lower weight gain was evident only in group T female cubs. The serum Cortisol level in response to an ACTH challenge was higher in group T cubs and independent of the sex of the animal, while heavier adrenals were observed in group T male cubs only. We conclude that the enlarged cage system combined with group housing had some beneficial effects on the measured performance- and welfare-related indicators in blue fox cubs.

Group housing of male laboratory mice often leads to welfare problems due to aggressive behaviour. From a welfare perspective, individual housing is not a preferred solution to these problems - and so we sought other ways of reducing aggression between male mice. Aggression peaks after disturbances such as cage cleaning. Transfer of olfactory cues during cage cleaning procedures has been repeatedly proposed as a means of reducing these peaks in aggression. In this study, the aggression-modulating properties of olfactory cues were studied by investigating the effects of their source and distribution on aggression after cage cleaning in groups of male BALB/c mice. The physiological effects of aggression on individuals within a group were also monitored.

Our results indicated that neither kinship nor distribution of urine marks affected aggression. Olfactory cues from nesting and bedding material, however, affected aggression to a marked degree: transfer of nesting material reduced aggression significantly, while transfer of sawdust containing urine and faeces seemed to intensify aggression. None of the physiological data revealed any differences between dominant and subordinate animals, nor any correlations with aggressiveness, except that dominant animals gained weight more rapidly than subordinate ones. We conclude that the transfer of nesting material will reduce aggression, or at least slow down its development, and thus aid the reduction of social tension due to cage cleaning.

Pigs undergoing an alarming experience may produce olfactory stimuli (pheromones) in their urine, which may have consequences for the welfare of other pigs exposed to these stimuli. Twelve young adult female pigs (gilts) were restrained for 30min in feeding stalls (a potentially alarming experience) and any urine produced was collected. Six gilts had previously experienced the procedure (experienced gilts), and six gilts had not (inexperienced gilts). The gilts’ behaviour was recorded over the 30min period. The inexperienced gilts exhibited significantly more escape behaviour (P < 0.001) and less exploratory behaviour (p < 0.05) than those which had prior experience of restraint.

Twelve weaner pigs (30 days old) were subsequently individually exposed to the urine from inexperienced gilts, the urine from experienced gilts and a water control in an open field test. The ambulation score in the open field test was significantly higher (P < 0.01) when weaners were exposed to the urine from inexperienced gilts compared to the other two treatments. The weaners were then presented with a feeder containing feed sprayed with the treatment samples. The weaners took significantly longer to approach the feeder sprayed with the urine from the inexperienced gilts (P < 0.05) and performed significantly more eating bouts (P < 0.05) that were significantly shorter compared with the water control (P < 0.05). Total number of vocalizations (P < 0.01) and grunts (P < 0.05) were significantly greater in those pigs exposed to the inexperienced gilts’ urine. These results indicate that urinary alarm pheromones were produced by the inexperienced gilts during restraint in the feeding stall and that these pheromones significantly modified the behaviour of weaner pigs subsequently exposed to them. Exposure to such pheromones is likely to adversely affect the welfare of pigs.