For those aiming to improve the social competence of others, the choice is usually between shaping specific micro-skills or more general problem-solving. While these are not mutually exclusive in practice, research has tended to investigate them separately. One of the major issues facing those targeting micro-skills is their validity in the setting of concern. For those targeting problemsolving, the issue is predominantly one of triggering problem-solving behaviour in the absence of trainer prompts. Other major issues which still have to be satisfactorily resolved include the identification and assessment of children requiring improved social skills and social competence. In addition, there is a need to remind ourselves that while improved social skills should lead to improved judgments about an individual's social competence, the latter is a somewhat abstract notion which tells us little about an individual's goals and objectives. While improved social competence should be one of our goals, it must be anchored to well defined behavioural objectives. One can be the life and soul of a party and receive high social competence ratings, yet be lonely and isolated once the party ends.

Problems associated with alcohol consumption among young people are reviewed from an integrated biopsychosocial model. It is argued that young people drink differently from older people, and that traditional models of addiction and treatment work better with older populations than with younger ones. Social, psychological and biological factors associated with development and remission of young people's drinking are reviewed. Suggestions for approaches to early interventions are developed.

Many constructs used in various areas of psychology often represent some behavioural reality not yet analysed as such. Analyses of behaviours associated with these constructs might profit both behaviour analysis and the other disciplines. This paper provides a behavioural analysis of the construct of ‘empowerment’ found in community psychology. We discuss the implications for researchers attempting to combine behaviour analysis and social action.

Twenty-two subjects diagnosed as having an occupationally related injury to the connective tissues, joints or muscles of the hands, arms, neck, shoulders or upper back were included in an experimental study which investigated the effectiveness of a cognitive-behavioural and movement-retraining program for reducing anxiety, depression, pain and disruption of activities by pain. Group and single case analyses indicated that the intervention program was associated with reductions in pain and the extent to which pain disrupted activities of daily living for some subjects, but program effects did not maintain over time.

Cardiophobic persons repeatedly present with complaints of chest pain and heart palpitations accompanied by fears of having a heart attack and of dying. They focus attention on their heart when experiencing stress and arousal, perceive its function in a phobic manner, and continue to believe they suffer from an organic heart problem despite repeated negative medical tests. To reduce anxiety, they seek continuous reassurance, make excessive use of medical facilities, and avoid activities believed to bring on symptoms. This article analyses the evidence for viewing cardiophobia as a phobic disorder in its own right rather than merely a problem of non-organic chest pain with some overlay of anxiety and depression. Despite some overlapping symptoms shared with persons who suffer from panic disorder, illness phobia, and extreme health anxiety, a number of central and defining features of cardiophobia are identified to differentiate cardiophobia from other anxiety disorders. An integrative model for understanding the origin and maintenance of cardiophobia (Eifert, 1990) is summarised and some treatment recommendations are derived from this model to target the central problems of persons with cardiophobia. Directions for future research are also discussed.

The present paper reviews recent developments in the assessment of children's social competence and social skills. Current conceptual models of social competence and social skills are discussed and provide a basis against which assessment measures can be evaluated. Although many measures are now available, there is a lack of integration of assessment devices within a conceptually sound framework of an assessment system. Such an assessment system should distinguish between social competence and social skills, should take into account developmental, sex and cultural factors, and should assess at micro-versus macro-skill and overt versus cognitive levels of behaviour. The system should then integrate information within a cognitive-behavioural analysis, using data from a wide range of informants, from a range of settings. Greater attention to matters of reliability and validity of assessment measures is also necessary in the development of such a system.

The aim of this study was to investigate the feelings of loneliness among students with learning disabilities (LD) and to identify subgroups according to their loneliness characteristics. The sample consisted of 76 students from seven self-contained classes for LD students within regular schools in all parts of Israel. The instruments included self-reported loneliness and social skills scales, teacher ratings of behaviour disorders, and peer ratings of social acceptance. The following factors predicted the students' feelings of loneliness: peer acceptance, social skills, and computer activities, explaining 32% of the variance. Using cluster analysis for the loneliness and behaviour disorder factors, four subgroups of students were identified. They differed along their levels of loneliness, presence of disruptive behaviour (internal validation) and social skills (external validation). The results emphasised the need to consider loneliness levels and manifestations of disruptive behaviour in attempts to conceptualise these students' difficulties and to plan individualised intervention programs. Further research, focusing on the impact of the intervention on the subjective experience of loneliness, may advance our understanding of the students' needs.

This paper considers the employment of women academics in Australia and describes ideological sources of individual cognitions about the acceptability of the jobs typically performed by women in academia. A cognitive-behavioural model is used to explore the role of certain group behaviours in maintaining power divisions between the sexes. It is suggested that women can control aspects of their interactions with others in ways that might facilitate their promotion. The importance of time and resource management in making these changes is emphasised. The questions of reconciling the issues of feminism and behaviourism in dealing with co-workers in tertiary education are discussed. The context is not a client/therapist interaction and the model of behaviour change underlying this article is participant rather than administrative, in that it assumes that at least some members of both sexes within Australian universities will take responsibility for self-directed behaviour change. The purpose of this paper is to consider the areas of academic politics, both micro and macro, which might be susceptible to change by people using self-directed behaviour modification techniques.

Twenty-eight non-clinical subjects, scoring either high or low on a variety of anxiety measures, were asked to match their perceived heart rate to a series of tones produced by a metronomal device, both at rest and during a period of mild exercise. Actual heart rate was measured concurrently with an electrocardiogram. No differences were found between groups in the accuracy with which they were able to monitor their heart rates and, in fact, all subjects markedly underestimated their heart rate. Also, no significant correlations were found between heart rate awareness and any of the measures of anxiety, except for a negative relationship between awareness and scores on the Anxiety Sensitivity Index. Theories of anxiety, and methodological considerations, are discussed.

Three adults with haemophilia participated in a study designed to determine the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioural techniques in the alleviation of chronic arthritic pain. The intervention comprised cognitive-coping skills, primarily relaxation training and guided imagery techniques, as well as identifying and altering antecedents and consequences that may have influenced their pain experience. The dependent measures included visual analogue rating scales, the Arthritis Impact Measurements Scale, the Beck Depression Inventory and pedometer readings. All three men showed significant reductions in pain, which were largely maintained at six-month follow-up. This study supports earlier findings with this population, and highlights the importance of monitoring the implementation of independent measures.

The client, Susan, was a 25-year-old woman who had been engaging in checking rituals and repeating actions for at least five years. Staff, psychology students, high school volunteers and members of the client's family acted as observers and behaviour change agents. Data were collected daily, for up to 16 hours, over a 14-month period. The two major dependent variables comprised the number of rituals and the total time required to complete specific tasks. The major independent variable (response prevention) was also monitored. The results suggest that response prevention reduced the number of rituals and the time required to complete tasks and these changes were maintained at three months follow-up. In addition, a number of daily activities increased. The advantages and disadvantages of carrying out an intensive intervention within a community-based rehabilitation setting are discussed.

Despite their significance, childhood anxiety disorders, compared to those of adults, have been neglected by researchers. However, recent years have witnessed increasing research on childhood anxiety disorders. Normative and developmental aspects of fear and anxiety are briefly discussed and we examine the classification and diagnostic reliability of childhood anxiety disorders. In relation to assessment, we focus on some recent research developments on self-report instruments and behavioural avoidance tests. An integrative behavioural treatment model is presented in which the need for age-appropriate intervention is emphasised. Also, data on the social validity of fear reduction procedures are presented. Finally, we outline several directions for future research.

This paper reviews individual and community approaches to smoking prevention. It summarises some behavioural components of individual and group methods of smoking prevention and cessation and points to some of the shortcomings of these approaches. The advantages of community-based interventions for smoking are reviewed and the limitations of past community studies are noted. It is proposed that a community approach to smoking prevention holds considerable promise. Multiple interventions which address smoking as a community issue and the provision of community-based structures and support for smoking cessation are needed to combat this major public health problem.

We evaluated the empirical validation model of target selection for two boys with interpersonal problems. Behaviours previously identified as distinguishing popular from rejected boys on a role-play measure of social behaviour were targeted for change in these boys who had histories of peer rejection. We trained three of these empirically-derived behaviours — appropriate body orientation, adequate speech intonation, and providing reasons for denying unreasonable requests — in a multiple-baseline-across-behaviours design. On a role-play measure of social behaviour, improvements in the targeted behaviours occurred upon, but not before, introduction of the intervention, confirming the controlling effects of the intervention. Behavioural improvements generalised to untrained role-play scenes and to a novel role-play partner, and were maintained for two of the three behaviours at 4- and 6-month follow-up assessments. The boys also showed improvements in parent-reported child behaviour from pre- to post-training. The study demonstrates use of an empirical approach to the selection of treatment targets for children.

About 4 million children die every year as a result of dehydration caused by acute diarrhoea. Oral rehydration therapy (ORT) is designed to prevent dehydration. In the past 10 years, several campaigns have been conducted throughout the world, mostly sponsored by the World Health Organization, to disseminate ORT, particularly in developing countries. This paper presents a review of 14 ORT campaigns categorising their components according to whether the researchers used antecedents, behaviours, and/or consequences. Only three campaigns manipulated all three components. Antecedent events were manipulated in all of the studies. A skills training component appears to influence the effectiveness of the campaign, since several new behaviours and complex discriminations need to be learned for people to use ORT correctly. The benefits of functionally analysing the components of current ORT campaigns are highlighted.

A rationale is provided for the development of a small group instructional approach to improving the competence of adolescents who reportedly experience difficulty making and maintaining friendships. Social problem-solving studies are briefly examined to provide support for such an approach, which is based on incorporating gradated in vivo assignments into the training process and using progress in these assignments as feedback for further assignment setting. The program, named STAMPS (Social Training for Adolescents: Making Positive Steps) is described in some detail and illustrated with data from a single case. Discussion deals with aspects of the program requiring further investigation, including the selection of peers as potential friends, and the need to modify the program to deal with broader adolescent issues including conflict with authority, teachers, and parents.

Evaluation of a self-help smoking cessation program indicated it to be moderately successful in helping community members to reduce smoking. However, there was no relationship between success and the extent to which components of the program had been used; nor did locus of control or self-efficacy predict success. Further, several participants decided to become controlled smokers, an alternative which was not included in the program. These findings suggest that users of self-help materials take an active role in selection and modifying components of such programs. A clearer idea of what people actually do with the materials supplied would provide a better understanding of the process of change and assist researchers in the development of effective programs.

This study investigated the relationship between the level of combat exposure and army status (regular army soldiers vs national servicemen) and the subsequent development of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Sixty-four Australian infantrymen who were exposed to combat stress in Vietnam were used in this study. They were divided into four groups based on combat exposure and status as a regular or conscripted soldier. Subjects were assessed 23 years after their tour of duty in Vietnam for PTSD and psychiatric symptomatology using a PTSD inventory based on DSM-III-R criteria, the Self-report Checklist 90 (SCL-90), the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the Impact of Events Scale (IES), the Mississippi Scale for Combat-related PTSD (Mississippi Scale), the State and Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), and a demographic questionnaire. Results showed that 29.85% of the veterans have a positive diagnosis of PTSD according to self-report of symptoms based on the DSM-III-R criteria, while 54.89% of the remaining veterans suffer major symptoms of this disorder. MANOVA results show that neither the level of combat exposure nor the army status of the veterans had any significant effect on their psychiatric symptomatology as measured by the SCL-90, the BDI, the IES, and the STAI.