Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-8bhkd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T11:08:58.319Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Utility of arterial stiffness assessment in children

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 January 2018

Chaitanya Panchangam Open the ORCID record for Chaitanya Panchangam [Opens in a new window] ,
Eric Dean Merrill  and
Geetha Raghuveer
Chaitanya Panchangam
Affiliation:
Children’s Mercy Hospital, 2401 Gillham Rd, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
Eric Dean Merrill
Affiliation:
University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Medicine, 2411 Holmes Street, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
Geetha Raghuveer
Affiliation:
Children’s Mercy Hospital, 2401 Gillham Rd, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Medicine, 2411 Holmes Street, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide, and the atherosclerotic process begins in childhood. Prevention or containment of risk factors that accelerate atherosclerosis can delay the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Although current recommendations are to periodically screen for commonly prevailing risk factors for atherosclerosis in children, a single test that could quantify the cumulative effect of all risk factors on the vasculature, thus assessing arterial health, would be helpful in further stratifying risk. Measurement of pulse wave velocity and assessment of augmentation index – measures of arterial stiffness – are easy-to-use, non-invasive methods of examining arterial health. Various studies have assessed pulse wave velocity and augmentation index in children with commonly occurring conditions including obesity, hypertension, insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidaemia, physical inactivity, chronic kidney disease, CHD and acquired heart diseases, and in children who were born premature or small for gestational age. This article summarises pulse wave velocity and augmentation index assessments and the effects of commonly prevailing chronic conditions on arterial health in children. In addition, currently available reference values for pulse wave velocity and augmentation index in healthy children are included. Further research to establish widely applicable normative values and the effect of lifestyle and pharmacological interventions on arterial health in children is needed.

Keywords

Pulse wave velocityaugmentation indexchildrenatherosclerosis
Type
Review Article
Information
Cardiology in the Young , Volume 28 , Issue 3 , March 2018 , pp. 362 - 376
Check for updates
Copyright
© Cambridge University Press 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Chaitanya Panchangam and Eric Dean Merrill co first authors contributed equally.

References

1. Lloyd-Jones, D, Adams, RJ, Brown, TM, et al. Executive summary: heart disease and stroke statistics – 2010 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2010; 121: 948–954.Google ScholarPubMed
2. Zieman, SJ, Melenovsky, V, Kass, DA. Mechanisms, pathophysiology, and therapy of arterial stiffness. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005; 25: 932–943.Google Scholar
3. Expert panel on integrated guidelines for cardiovascular health and risk reduction in children and adolescents: summary report. Pediatrics 2011; 128 (Suppl 5): S213–S256.Google Scholar
4. Celermajer, DS, Sorensen, KE, Gooch, VM, et al. Non-invasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in children and adults at risk of atherosclerosis. Lancet 1992; 340: 1111–1115.Google Scholar
5. Crouse, JR 3rd, Craven, TE, Hagaman, AP, et al. Association of coronary disease with segment-specific intimal-medial thickening of the extracranial carotid artery. Circulation 1995; 92: 1141–1147.Google Scholar
6. Riley, WA, Barnes, RW, Evans, GW, et al. Ultrasonic measurement of the elastic modulus of the common carotid artery. The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Stroke 1992; 23: 952–956.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7. Kelly, AS, Wetzsteon, RJ, Kaiser, DR, et al. Inflammation, insulin, and endothelial function in overweight children and adolescents: the role of exercise. J Pediatr 2004; 145: 731–736.Google Scholar
8. Aggoun, Y, Farpour-Lambert, NJ, Marchand, LM, et al. Impaired endothelial and smooth muscle functions and arterial stiffness appear before puberty in obese children and are associated with elevated ambulatory blood pressure. Eur Heart J 2008; 29: 792–799.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
9. Jarvisalo, MJ, Raitakari, M, Toikka, JO, et al. Endothelial dysfunction and increased arterial intima-media thickness in children with type 1 diabetes. Circulation 2004; 109: 1750–1755.Google Scholar
10. de Jongh, S, Lilien, MR, op’t Roodt, J, et al. Early statin therapy restores endothelial function in children with familial hypercholesterolemia. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002; 40: 2117–2121.Google Scholar
11. Kari, JA, Donald, AE, Vallance, DT, et al. Physiology and biochemistry of endothelial function in children with chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 1997; 52: 468–472.Google Scholar
12. Meyer, AA, Kundt, G, Steiner, M, et al. Impaired flow-mediated vasodilation, carotid artery intima-media thickening, and elevated endothelial plasma markers in obese children: the impact of cardiovascular risk factors. Pediatrics 2006; 117: 1560–1567.Google Scholar
13. Woo, KS, Chook, P, Yu, CW, et al. Effects of diet and exercise on obesity-related vascular dysfunction in children. Circulation 2004; 109: 1981–1986.Google Scholar
14. Freedman, DS, Dietz, WH, Tang, R, et al. The relation of obesity throughout life to carotid intima-media thickness in adulthood: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2004; 28: 159–166.Google Scholar
15. Stoner, L, Young, JM, Fryer, S. Assessments of arterial stiffness and endothelial function using pulse wave analysis. Int J Vasc Med 2012; 2012: 903107.Google Scholar
16. Urbina, EM, Williams, RV, Alpert, BS, et al. Noninvasive assessment of subclinical atherosclerosis in children and adolescents: recommendations for standard assessment for clinical research: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Hypertension 2009; 54: 919–950.Google Scholar
17. Blacher, J, Asmar, R, Djane, S, et al. Aortic pulse wave velocity as a marker of cardiovascular risk in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 1999; 33: 1111–1117.Google Scholar
18. Vlachopoulos, C, Aznaouridis, K, Stefanadis, C. Prediction of cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality with arterial stiffness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010; 55: 1318–1327.Google Scholar
19. Mitchell, GF, Hwang, SJ, Vasan, RS, et al. Arterial stiffness and cardiovascular events: the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 2010; 121: 505–511.Google Scholar
20. Laurent, S, Boutouyrie, P, Asmar, R, et al. Aortic stiffness is an independent predictor of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 2001; 37: 1236–1241.Google Scholar
21. London, GM, Blacher, J, Pannier, B, et al. Arterial wave reflections and survival in end-stage renal failure. Hypertension 2001; 38: 434–438.Google Scholar
22. Laurent, S, Cockcroft, J, Van Bortel, L, et al. Expert consensus document on arterial stiffness: methodological issues and clinical applications. Eur Heart J 2006; 27: 2588–2605.Google Scholar
23. Hickson, SS, Butlin, M, Broad, J, et al. Validity and repeatability of the Vicorder apparatus: a comparison with the SphygmoCor device. Hypertens Res 2009; 32: 1079–1085.Google Scholar
24. Grotenhuis, HB, Westenberg, JJ, Steendijk, P, et al. Validation and reproducibility of aortic pulse wave velocity as assessed with velocity-encoded MRI. J Magn Reson Imaging 2009; 30: 521–526.Google Scholar
25. Calabia, J, Torguet, P, Garcia, M, et al. Doppler ultrasound in the measurement of pulse wave velocity: agreement with the Complior method. Cardiovasc Ultrasound 2011; 9: 13.Google Scholar
26. Nurnberger, J, Keflioglu-Scheiber, A, Opazo Saez, AM, et al. Augmentation index is associated with cardiovascular risk. J Hypertens 2002; 20: 2407–2414.Google Scholar
27. Chirinos, JA. Arterial stiffness: basic concepts and measurement techniques. J Cardiovasc Transl Res 2012; 5: 243–255.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
28. Van Bortel, LM, Duprez, D, Starmans-Kool, MJ, et al. Clinical applications of arterial stiffness, Task Force III: recommendations for user procedures. Am J Hypertens 2002; 15: 445–452.Google Scholar
29. Reusz, GS, Cseprekal, O, Temmar, M, et al. Reference values of pulse wave velocity in healthy children and teenagers. Hypertension 2010; 56: 217–224.Google Scholar
30. Hidvegi, EV, Illyes, M, Molnar, FT, et al. Influence of body height on aortic systolic pressure augmentation and wave reflection in childhood. J Human Hypertens 2015; 29: 495–501.Google Scholar
31. Fischer, DC, Schreiver, C, Heimhalt, M, et al. Pediatric reference values of carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity determined with an oscillometric device. J Hypertens 2012; 30: 2159–2167.Google Scholar
32. Hidvegi, EV, Illyes, M, Benczur, B, et al. Reference values of aortic pulse wave velocity in a large healthy population aged between 3 and 18 years. J Hypertens 2012; 30: 2314–2321.Google Scholar
33. Elmenhorst, J, Hulpke-Wette, M, Barta, C, et al. Percentiles for central blood pressure and pulse wave velocity in children and adolescents recorded with an oscillometric device. Atherosclerosis 2015; 238: 9–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
34. Recio-Rodriguez, JI, Gomez-Marcos, MA, Patino-Alonso, MC, et al. Abdominal obesity vs general obesity for identifying arterial stiffness, subclinical atherosclerosis and wave reflection in healthy, diabetics and hypertensive. BMC Cardiovasc Disord 2012; 12: 3.Google Scholar
35. Scuteri, A, Orru, M, Morrell, CH, et al. Associations of large artery structure and function with adiposity: effects of age, gender, and hypertension. The SardiNIA Study. Atherosclerosis 2012; 221: 189–197.Google Scholar
36. Dengo, AL, Dennis, EA, Orr, JS, et al. Arterial destiffening with weight loss in overweight and obese middle-aged and older adults. Hypertension 2010; 55: 855–861.Google Scholar
37. Cote, AT, Harris, KC, Panagiotopoulos, C, et al. Childhood obesity and cardiovascular dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013; 62: 1309–1319.Google Scholar
38. Dangardt, F, Osika, W, Volkmann, R, et al. Obese children show increased intimal wall thickness and decreased pulse wave velocity. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 2008; 28: 287–293.Google Scholar
39. Charakida, M, Jones, A, Falaschetti, E, et al. Childhood obesity and vascular phenotypes: a population study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012; 60: 2643–2650.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
40. Lurbe, E, Torro, I, Garcia-Vicent, C, et al. Blood pressure and obesity exert independent influences on pulse wave velocity in youth. Hypertension 2012; 60: 550–555.Google Scholar
41. Dangardt, F, Chen, Y, Berggren, K, et al. Increased rate of arterial stiffening with obesity in adolescents: a five-year follow-up study. PloS one 2013; 8: e57454.Google Scholar
42. Sakuragi, S, Abhayaratna, K, Gravenmaker, KJ, et al. Influence of adiposity and physical activity on arterial stiffness in healthy children: the lifestyle of our kids study. Hypertension 2009; 53: 611–616.Google Scholar
43. Urbina, EM, Kimball, TR, Khoury, PR, et al. Increased arterial stiffness is found in adolescents with obesity or obesity-related type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Hypertens 2010; 28: 1692–1698.Google Scholar
44. Arnberg, K, Larnkjaer, A, Michaelsen, KF, et al. Central adiposity and protein intake are associated with arterial stiffness in overweight children. J Nutr 2012; 142: 878–885.Google Scholar
45. Aatola, H, Hutri-Kahonen, N, Juonala, M, et al. Lifetime risk factors and arterial pulse wave velocity in adulthood: the cardiovascular risk in young Finns study. Hypertension 2010; 55: 806–811.Google Scholar
46. Mansia, G, De Backer, G, Dominiczak, A, et al. 2007 ESH-ESC Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: the task force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Blood Press 2007; 16: 135–232.Google Scholar
47. Liang, Y, Hou, D, Shan, X, et al. Cardiovascular remodeling relates to elevated childhood blood pressure: Beijing Blood Pressure Cohort Study. Int J Cardiol 2014; 177: 836–839.Google Scholar
48. Niboshi, A, Hamaoka, K, Sakata, K, et al. Characteristics of brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity in Japanese children. Eur J Pediatr 2006; 165: 625–629.Google Scholar
49. Stergiou, GS, Giovas, PP, Kollias, A, et al. Relationship of home blood pressure with target-organ damage in children and adolescents. Hypertens Res 2011; 34: 640–644.Google Scholar
50. Zhu, H, Yan, W, Ge, D, et al. Cardiovascular characteristics in American youth with prehypertension. Am J Hypertens 2007; 20: 1051–1057.Google Scholar
51. Stergiou, GS, Kollias, A, Giovas, PP, et al. Ambulatory arterial stiffness index, pulse pressure and pulse wave velocity in children and adolescents. Hypertens Res 2010; 33: 1272–1277.Google Scholar
52. Urbina, EM, Khoury, PR, McCoy, C, et al. Cardiac and vascular consequences of pre-hypertension in youth. J Clin Hypertens 2011; 13: 332–342.Google Scholar
53. Kyvelou, SM, Vyssoulis, GP, Karpanou, EA, et al. Arterial stiffness in offspring of hypertensive parents: a pilot study. Int J Cardiol 2008; 129: 438–440.Google Scholar
54. Czernichow, S, Bertrais, S, Blacher, J, et al. Metabolic syndrome in relation to structure and function of large arteries: a predominant effect of blood pressure. A report from the SU.VI.MAX. Vascular Study. Am J Hypertens 2005; 18 (9 Pt 1): 1154–1160.Google Scholar
55. Kasayama, S, Saito, H, Mukai, M, et al. Insulin sensitivity independently influences brachial-ankle pulse-wave velocity in non-diabetic subjects. Diabet Med 2005; 22: 1701–1706.Google Scholar
56. Schack-Nielsen, L, Molgaard, C, Larsen, D, et al. Arterial stiffness in 10-year-old children: current and early determinants. Br J Nutr 2005; 94: 1004–1011.Google Scholar
57. Urbina, EM, Gao, Z, Khoury, PR, et al. Insulin resistance and arterial stiffness in healthy adolescents and young adults. Diabetologia 2012; 55: 625–631.Google Scholar
58. Shah, AS, Gao, Z, Urbina, EM, et al. Prediabetes: the effects on arterial thickness and stiffness in obese youth. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014; 99: 1037–1043.Google Scholar
59. McCloskey, K, Sun, C, Pezic, A, et al. The effect of known cardiovascular risk factors on carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity in school-aged children: a population based twin study. J Dev Orig Health Dis 2014; 5: 307–313.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
60. Kimoto, E, Shoji, T, Shinohara, K, et al. Preferential stiffening of central over peripheral arteries in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 2003; 52: 448–452.Google Scholar
61. Llaurado, G, Ceperuelo-Mallafre, V, Vilardell, C, et al. Arterial stiffness is increased in patients with type 1 diabetes without cardiovascular disease: a potential role of low-grade inflammation. Diabetes Care 2012; 35: 1083–1089.Google Scholar
62. Lieberman, R, Wadwa, RP, Nguyen, N, et al. The association between vitamin D and vascular stiffness in adolescents with and without type 1 diabetes. PloS one 2013; 8: e77272.Google Scholar
63. Stakos, DA, Schuster, DP, Sparks, EA, et al. Cardiovascular effects of type 1 diabetes mellitus in children. Angiology 2005; 56: 311–317.Google Scholar
64. Urbina, EM, Wadwa, RP, Davis, C, et al. Prevalence of increased arterial stiffness in children with type 1 diabetes mellitus differs by measurement site and sex: the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study. J Pediatr 2010; 156: 731–737; 37 e1.Google Scholar
65. Wadwa, RP, Urbina, EM, Anderson, AM, et al. Measures of arterial stiffness in youth with type 1 and type 2 diabetes: the SEARCH for diabetes in youth study. Diabetes Care 2010; 33: 881–886.Google Scholar
66. Heilman, K, Zilmer, M, Zilmer, K, et al. Arterial stiffness, carotid artery intima-media thickness and plasma myeloperoxidase level in children with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2009; 84: 168–173.Google Scholar
67. Rosenson, RS, Brewer, HB Jr, Chapman, MJ, et al. HDL measures, particle heterogeneity, proposed nomenclature, and relation to atherosclerotic cardiovascular events. Clin Chem 2011; 57: 392–410.Google Scholar
68. Lamarche, B, Moorjani, S, Lupien, PJ, et al. Apolipoprotein A-I and B levels and the risk of ischemic heart disease during a five-year follow-up of men in the Quebec cardiovascular study. Circulation 1996; 94: 273–278.Google Scholar
69. Bjornstad, P, Nguyen, N, Reinick, C, et al. Association of apolipoprotein B, LDL-C and vascular stiffness in adolescents with type 1 diabetes. Acta Diabetol 2015; 52: 611–619.Google Scholar
70. Vlahos, AP, Naka, KK, Bechlioulis, A, et al. Endothelial dysfunction, but not structural atherosclerosis, is evident early in children with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. Pediatr Cardiol 2014; 35: 63–70.Google Scholar
71. Urbina, EM, Khoury, PR, McCoy, CE, et al. Triglyceride to HDL-C ratio and increased arterial stiffness in children, adolescents, and young adults. Pediatrics 2013; 131: e1082–e1090.Google Scholar
72. Vaitkevicius, PV, Fleg, JL, Engel, JH, et al. Effects of age and aerobic capacity on arterial stiffness in healthy adults. Circulation 1993; 88 (4 Pt 1): 1456–1462.Google Scholar
73. Montero, D, Vinet, A, Roberts, CK. Effect of combined aerobic and resistance training versus aerobic training on arterial stiffness. Int J Cardiol 2015; 178: 69–76.Google Scholar
74. Walker, DJ, MacIntosh, A, Kozyrskyj, A, et al. The associations between cardiovascular risk factors, physical activity, and arterial stiffness in youth. J Phys Act Health 2013; 10: 198–204.Google Scholar
75. Pandit, DS, Khadilkar, AV, Chiplonkar, SA, et al. Arterial stiffness in obese children: role of adiposity and physical activity. Indian J Endocrinol Metab 2014; 18: 70–76.Google Scholar
76. Chen, Y, Dangardt, F, Osika, W, et al. Age- and sex-related differences in vascular function and vascular response to mental stress. Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies in a cohort of healthy children and adolescents. Atherosclerosis 2012; 220: 269–274.Google Scholar
77. Groothoff, JW, Gruppen, MP, Offringa, M, et al. Mortality and causes of death of end-stage renal disease in children: a Dutch cohort study. Kidney Int 2002; 61: 621–629.Google Scholar
78. Covic, A, Mardare, N, Gusbeth-Tatomir, P, et al. Increased arterial stiffness in children on haemodialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2006; 21: 729–735.Google Scholar
79. Kis, E, Cseprekal, O, Horvath, Z, et al. Pulse wave velocity in end-stage renal disease: influence of age and body dimensions. Pediatr Res 2008; 63: 95–98.Google Scholar
80. Dursun, I, Poyrazoglu, HM, Gunduz, Z, et al. The relationship between circulating endothelial microparticles and arterial stiffness and atherosclerosis in children with chronic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2009; 24: 2511–2518.Google Scholar
81. Shroff, RC, Donald, AE, Hiorns, MP, et al. Mineral metabolism and vascular damage in children on dialysis. J Am Soc Nephrol 2007; 18: 2996–3003.Google Scholar
82. Alghamdi, M, De Souza, AM, White, CT, et al. Echo-Doppler assessment of the biophysical properties of the aorta in children with chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Cardiol 2013; 34: 1218–1225.Google Scholar
83. Makulska, I, Szczepanska, M, Drozdz, D, et al. Skin autofluorescence as a marker of cardiovascular risk in children with chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 2013; 28: 121–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
84. Sarnak, MJ, Levey, AS, Schoolwerth, AC, et al. Kidney disease as a risk factor for development of cardiovascular disease: a statement from the American Heart Association Councils on Kidney in Cardiovascular Disease, High Blood Pressure Research, Clinical Cardiology, and Epidemiology and Prevention. Hypertension 2003; 42: 1050–1065.Google Scholar
85. Aoun, B, Lorton, F, Wannous, H, et al. Aortic stiffness in ESRD children before and after renal transplantation. Pediatr Nephrol 2010; 25: 1331–1336.Google Scholar
86. Cseprekal, O, Kis, E, Schaffer, P, et al. Pulse wave velocity in children following renal transplantation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2009; 24: 309–315.Google Scholar
87. Briese, S, Claus, M, Querfeld, U. Arterial stiffness in children after renal transplantation. Pediatr Nephrol 2008; 23: 2241–2245.Google Scholar
88. Degi, AA, Kis, E, Kerti, A, et al. Prevalence of obesity and metabolic changes after kidney transplantation: Hungarian pediatric cohort study. Transplantation Proc 2014; 46: 2160–2163.Google Scholar
89. Gardiner, HM, Celermajer, DS, Sorensen, KE, et al. Arterial reactivity is significantly impaired in normotensive young adults after successful repair of aortic coarctation in childhood. Circulation 1994; 89: 1745–1750.Google Scholar
90. Trojnarska, O, Szczepaniak-Chichel, L, Mizia-Stec, K, et al. Vascular remodeling in adults after coarctation repair: impact of descending aorta stenosis and age at surgery. Clin Res Cardiol 2011; 100: 447–455.Google Scholar
91. Kenny, D, Polson, JW, Martin, RP, et al. Relationship of aortic pulse wave velocity and baroreceptor reflex sensitivity to blood pressure control in patients with repaired coarctation of the aorta. Am Heart J 2011; 162: 398–404.Google Scholar
92. Ou, P, Celermajer, DS, Jolivet, O, et al. Increased central aortic stiffness and left ventricular mass in normotensive young subjects after successful coarctation repair. Am Heart J 2008; 155: 187–193.Google Scholar
93. Niwa, K, Perloff, JK, Bhuta, SM, et al. Structural abnormalities of great arterial walls in congenital heart disease: light and electron microscopic analyses. Circulation 2001; 103: 393–400.Google Scholar
94. Tan, JL, Davlouros, PA, McCarthy, KP, et al. Intrinsic histological abnormalities of aortic root and ascending aorta in tetralogy of Fallot: evidence of causative mechanism for aortic dilatation and aortopathy. Circulation 2005; 112: 961–968.Google Scholar
95. Niwa, K. Aortic root dilatation in tetralogy of Fallot long-term after repair--histology of the aorta in tetralogy of Fallot: evidence of intrinsic aortopathy. Int J Cardiol 2005; 103: 117–119.Google Scholar
96. Niwa, K, Siu, SC, Webb, GD, et al. Progressive aortic root dilatation in adults late after repair of tetralogy of Fallot. Circulation 2002; 106: 1374–1378.Google Scholar
97. Kim, WH, Seo, JW, Kim, SJ, et al. Aortic dissection late after repair of tetralogy of Fallot. Int J Cardiol 2005; 101: 515–516.Google Scholar
98. Seki, M, Kurishima, C, Kawasaki, H, et al. Aortic stiffness and aortic dilation in infants and children with tetralogy of Fallot before corrective surgery: evidence for intrinsically abnormal aortic mechanical property. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2012; 41: 277–282.Google Scholar
99. Saiki, H, Kojima, T, Seki, M, et al. Marked disparity in mechanical wall properties between ascending and descending aorta in patients with tetralogy of Fallot. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2012; 41: 570–573.Google Scholar
100. Cheung, YF, Ou, X, Wong, SJ. Central and peripheral arterial stiffness in patients after surgical repair of tetralogy of Fallot: implications for aortic root dilatation. Heart 2006; 92: 1827–1830.Google Scholar
101. Senzaki, H, Iwamoto, Y, Ishido, H, et al. Arterial haemodynamics in patients after repair of tetralogy of Fallot: influence on left ventricular after load and aortic dilatation. Heart 2008; 94: 70–74.Google Scholar
102. Seki, M, Kurishima, C, Saiki, H, et al. Progressive aortic dilation and aortic stiffness in children with repaired tetralogy of Fallot. Heart Vessels 2014; 29: 83–87.Google Scholar
103. Natarajan, S, Heiss, C, Yeghiazarians, Y, et al. Peripheral arterial function in infants and young children with one-ventricle physiology and hypoxemia. Am J Cardiol 2009; 103: 862–866.Google Scholar
104. Sarkola, T, Jaeggi, E, Slorach, C, et al. Assessment of vascular remodeling after the Fontan procedure using a novel very high resolution ultrasound method: arterial wall thinning and venous thickening in late follow-up. Heart Vessels 2013; 28: 66–75.Google Scholar
105. Myers, KA, Leung, MT, Terri Potts, M, et al. Noninvasive assessment of vascular function and hydraulic power and efficiency in pediatric Fontan patients. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2013; 26: 1221–1227.Google Scholar
106. Johansson, S, Iliadou, A, Bergvall, N, et al. Risk of high blood pressure among young men increases with the degree of immaturity at birth. Circulation 2005; 112: 3430–3436.Google Scholar
107. Jarvelin, MR, Sovio, U, King, V, et al. Early life factors and blood pressure at age 31 years in the 1966 northern Finland birth cohort. Hypertension 2004; 44: 838–846.Google Scholar
108. Kaijser, M, Bonamy, AK, Akre, O, et al. Perinatal risk factors for ischemic heart disease: disentangling the roles of birth weight and preterm birth. Circulation 2008; 117: 405–410.Google Scholar
109. Crump, C, Sundquist, K, Sundquist, J, et al. Gestational age at birth and mortality in young adulthood. JAMA 2011; 306: 1233–1240.Google Scholar
110. McEniery, CM, Bolton, CE, Fawke, J, et al. Cardiovascular consequences of extreme prematurity: the EPICure study. J Hypertens 2011; 29: 1367–1373.Google Scholar
111. Bonamy, AK, Bendito, A, Martin, H, et al. Preterm birth contributes to increased vascular resistance and higher blood pressure in adolescent girls. Pediatr Res 2005; 58: 845–849.Google Scholar
112. Bradley, TJ, Potts, JE, Lee, SK, et al. Early changes in the biophysical properties of the aorta in pre-adolescent children born small for gestational age. J Pediatr 2010; 156: 388–392.Google Scholar
113. Cheung, YF, Wong, KY, Lam, BC, et al. Relation of arterial stiffness with gestational age and birth weight. Arch Dis Child 2004; 89: 217–221.Google Scholar
114. Lee, SJ, Ahn, HM, You, JH, et al. Carotid intima-media thickness and pulse wave velocity after recovery from kawasaki disease. Korean Circ J 2009; 39: 264–269.Google Scholar
115. Ooyanagi, R, Fuse, S, Tomita, H, et al. Pulse wave velocity and ankle brachial index in patients with Kawasaki disease. Pediatr Int 2004; 46: 398–402.Google Scholar
116. Cho, HJ, Yang, SI, Kim, KH, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors of early atherosclerosis in school-aged children after Kawasaki disease. Korean J Pediatr 2014; 57: 217–221.Google Scholar
117. AlHuzaimi, A, Al Mashham, Y, Potts, JE, et al. Echo-Doppler assessment of arterial stiffness in pediatric patients with Kawasaki disease. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2013; 26: 1084–1089.Google Scholar
118. Hamaoka, A, Hamaoka, K, Yahata, T, et al. Effects of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors on continuous post-inflammatory vascular remodeling late after Kawasaki disease. J cardiol 2010; 56: 245–253.Google Scholar