Common vetch (Vicia sativa) is an important forage and green manure crop that is widely cultivated around the world. However, the large number of subspecies and accessions of common vetch has made taxonomic research on this species difficult. Pollen morphology data can provide important evidence in the study of plant phylogeny. Therefore, in this research, light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy were used to observe seven morphological traits of pollens from 22 common vetch accessions, and residual maximum likelihood and pattern analysis was conducted. The results showed that the pollen grains of the 22 accessions were all monad pollen and the polar view revealed three-lobed circular and triangular shapes, while the equatorial view mainly revealed an oblate shape; only one accession showed an oblate spherical shape. All accessions were 3-zonocolporate and the colpus length extended close to the poles. The polar axis length was (19.39 ± 0.97)–(42.12 ± 0.76) μm and the equatorial axis length was (35.97 ± 1.27)–(45.25 ± 0.81) μm. We found that qualitative traits of pollen shape, aperture polar view and ornamentation were highly stable. Among them, polar axis length, equatorial axis length and colpus length and width had significant differences among the accessions. The ratios of the equatorial and polar axes had significant differences among the subspecies. This trait information could be used for the classification and identification of common vetch accessions and subspecies.

This work explores the uncertainty of the inferred maize pollen emission rate using measurements and simulations of pollen dispersion at Grignon in France. Measurements were obtained via deposition of pollen on the ground in a canopy gap; simulations were conducted using the two-dimensional Lagrangian Stochastic Mechanistic mOdel for Pollen dispersion and deposition (SMOP). First, a quantitative evaluation of the model's performance was conducted using a global sensitivity analysis to analyse the convergence behaviour of the results and scatter diagrams. Then, a qualitative study was conducted to infer the pollen emission rate and calibrate the methodology against experimental data for several sets of variable values. The analysis showed that predicted and observed values were in good agreement and the calculated statistical indices were mostly within the range of acceptable model performance. Furthermore, it was revealed that the mean settling velocity and vertical leaf area index are the main variables affecting pollen deposition in the canopy gap. Finally, an estimated pollen emission rate was obtained according to a restricted setting, where the model studied includes no deposition on leaves, no resuspension and with horizontal pollen fluctuations either taken into account or not. The estimated pollen emission rate obtained was nearly identical to the measured quantity. In conclusion, the findings of the current study show that the described methodology could be an interesting approach for accurate prediction of maize pollen deposition and emission rates and may be appropriate for other pollen types.

Plant breeding has brought about improvements in the herbage yield potential, forage quality and functional traits of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.). Under conditions of low external inputs, grassland swards based on perennial ryegrass often contain dicotyledonous species (legume and non-legume). Cultivar-specific functional traits such as growth form or phenology affect the competitive ability and yield in mixtures, but the extent to which cultivars with different functional traits affect forage quality in mixtures compared with pure stands is unknown. Therefore, we analysed four perennial ryegrass cultivars, each representing a combination of two functional traits with respect to phenology (early v. late heading) and growth form (upright v. prostrate) on forage quality, in a field experiment over 5 years. Each cultivar was grown in binary-mixtures with Trifolium repens L., as four-species mixtures with Taraxacum officinale L. and Plantago lanceolata L., and as grass monocultures. The effect of functional traits was dominant in the primary growth and persisted in pure stands but not in the mixtures from the third year onwards. Prostrate cultivars allowed the development of a greater proportion of clover and forbs within the mixtures, resulting in increased protein and energy and reduced fibre contents. In mixtures, forage quality was generally higher in the last regrowth. In conclusion, the indirect effects of growth form on forage quality due to modifications of botanical composition were more important than direct effects on forage quality.

Field trials conducted in multiple years across several locations play an essential role in plant breeding and variety testing. Usually, the analysis of the series of field trials is performed using a two-stage approach, where each combination of year and site is treated as environment. In variety testing based on the results from the analysis, the best varieties are recommended for cultivation. Under a Bayesian approach, the variety recommendation process can be treated as a formal decision theoretic problem. In the present study, we describe Bayesian counterparts of two stability measures and compare the varieties in terms of the posterior expected utility. Using the described methodology, we identify the most stable and highest tuber yielding varieties in the Polish potato series of field trials conducted from 2016 to 2018. It is shown that variety Arielle was the highest yielding, the third most stable variety and was the second best variety in terms of the posterior expected utility. In the present work, application of the Bayesian approach allowed us to incorporate the prior knowledge about the tested varieties and offered a possibility of treating the variety recommendation process as a formal decision process.

Crop models can be used to explain yield variations associated with management practices, environment and genotype. This study aimed to assess the effect of plant densities using CSM-CROPGRO-Soybean for low latitudes. The crop model was calibrated and evaluated using data from field experiments, including plant densities (10, 20, 30 and 40 plants per m2), maturity groups (MG 7.7 and 8.8) and sowing dates (calibration: 06 Jan., 19 Jan., 16 Feb. 2018; and evaluation: 19 Jan. 2019). The model simulated phenology with a bias lower than 2 days for calibration and 7 days for evaluation. Relative root mean square error for the maximum leaf area index varied from 12.2 to 31.3%; while that for grain yield varied between 3 and 32%. The calibrated model was used to simulate different management scenarios across six sites located in the low latitude, considering 33 growing seasons. Simulations showed a higher yield for 40 pl per m2, as expected, but with greater yield gain increments occurring at low plant density going from 10 to 20 pl per m2. In Santarém, Brazil, MG 8.8 sown on 21 Feb. had a median yield of 2658, 3197, 3442 and 3583 kg/ha, respectively, for 10, 20, 30 and 40 pl per m2, resulting in a relative increase of 20, 8 and 4% for each additional 10 pl per m2. Overall, the crop model had adequate performance, indicating a minimum recommended plant density of 20 pl per m2, while sowing dates and maturity groups showed different yield level and pattern across sites in function of the local climate.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Cactus (Opuntia spp) levels in total mixed ration silages based on Cactus and Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Steud) on the fermentation profile, microbial populations, aerobic stability and taxonomic diversity. The completely randomized design was used in a 4 × 4 factorial design with four replications, being four rations with different levels of Cactus (15, 30, 45, 60% based on the dry matter) and four opening periods (0, 15, 30 and 60 days of fermentation). An interaction effect (P < 0.050) was observed among the diets and opening times for mould and yeast populations. An interaction effect for the levels of acetic acid was observed, where the diets 15, 30, 45 and 60% showed higher values at 60 days (0.44, 0.41, 0.35 and 0.40 g/kg DM, respectively). A significant difference was observed for the richness and diversity index (Chao1 and Shannon). The most abundant bacterial phyla were Proteobacteria and Firmicutes and the genera Lactobacillus and Weissella. Cactus can be added in total mixed ration silages up to the level of 60% in a way that it positively affects the qualitative indicators of the silages, modulating the taxonomic communities and allowing the predominance of important groups for preservation of the ensiled mass.

The current research investigated the present and future projected distribution of rice (Oryza sativa L.) based on climatic suitability under three representative concentration pathways (RCPs) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change using maximum entropy (MaxEnt) modelling. The MaxEnt models predict that rice distribution in Bhutan will undergo major changes in terms of spatial range shift of varying magnitudes by 2060. Under the anthropogenic radiative forcing of RCP2.6, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5, ecological space of rice is predicted to change between 1 and 43%. Major changes are likely to take place in major rice-growing ecological zones of the country. This is likely to have a negative impact on the livelihood and food security of the people as crop production might start declining due to unfavourable climatic factors. Therefore, the findings of this study could prove beneficial for forecasting focus sites requiring interventions, including future climate research, planning, policy formulation and conservation of natural resources.

There is a fundamental concern regarding the prediction of kiwifruit yield based on the concentration of nutrients in the leaf (2–3 months before fruits harvesting). For this purpose, the current study was designed to employ an artificial neural network (ANN) to evaluate the kiwi yield of Hayward cultivar. In this regard, 31 kiwi orchards (6–7 years old) in different parts of Rudsar, Guilan Province, Iran, with 101 plots (three trees in every plot) were selected. The complete leaves of branches with fruits were harvested, and the concentration of nitrogen, potassium, calcium, and magnesium measured. After fruit harvesting in late November, the fruit yield of each plot was evaluated along with the fresh and dry weights of the fruit. The ANN analyses were carried out using a multi-layer perceptron with the Langburge-Marquardt training algorithm. Using calcium (Ca) as input data (Ca-model) was more accurate than using nitrogen (N-model). The maximum R2 and the lowest root mean square error was obtained when all nutrients and related ratios were considered as input variables. Since the difference between the proposed model and the model fitted by the calcium variable (Ca-model) was only about 6%, the Ca-model is recommended.

One of the major challenges in agriculture is how climate change influences crop production, for different environmental (soil type, topography, groundwater depth, etc.) and agronomic management conditions. Through systems modelling, this study aims to quantify the impact of future climate on yield risk of winter wheat for two common soil types of Eastern Denmark. The agro-ecosystem model DAISY was used to simulate arable, conventional cropping systems (CSs) and the study focused on the three main management factors: cropping sequence, usage of catch crops and cereal straw management. For the case region of Eastern Denmark, the future yield risk of wheat does not necessarily increase under climate change mainly due to lower water stress in the projections; rather, it depends on appropriate management and each CS design. Major management factors affecting the yield risk of wheat were N supply and the amount of organic material added during rotations. If a CS is characterized by straw removal and no catch crop within the rotation, an increased wheat yield risk must be expected in the future. In contrast, more favourable CSs, including catch crops and straw incorporation, maintain their capacity and result in a decreasing yield risk over time. Higher soil organic matter content, higher net nitrogen mineralization rate and higher soil organic nitrogen content were the main underlying causes for these positive effects. Furthermore, the simulation results showed better N recycling and reduced nitrate leaching for the more favourable CSs, which provide benefits for environment-friendly and sustainable crop production.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the fermentative characteristics and chemical composition of cochineal nopal cactus silage additives with urea or Lactobacillus buchneri (LB), as well as the association of both additives in four storage times (7, 15, 60 and 120 days) and during aerobic stability, with evaluations at 0, 48 and 96 h. Four silages were used: no additive, addition of 2% urea, addition of LB and addition of 2% urea and LB. The study was divided into two experiments: the first experiment evaluated the silages at different storage times, and the second experiment evaluated the silages during the aerobic stability test. In both experiments, the experimental design was completely randomized in a factorial scheme (4 × 4 and 4 × 3) with three replicates per treatment. After the ensiling process, lactic acid bacteria predominated in all treatments. The concentration of lactic acid increased significantly from 60 days of ensiling. The concentration of acetic acid varied significantly between the storage times only for the silages treated with urea and LB alone. The silage treated with urea maintained a constant pH value up to 120 days of storage. During the 96 h aerobic stability test, no breaking in the stability of silages was observed. The exclusive or associated use of urea and LB promotes improvement in the fermentative characteristics of cochineal nopal cactus silage, without major alterations in the chemical composition or interfering with the aerobic stability of the silages.

Durum wheat culture requires a high level of N fertilization to achieve ideal protein concentration for semolina and pasta quality, contributing to N losses. Optimizing plant N use efficiency could improve agro-environmental balance. In the current paper, we studied the impact of the marine (DPI4913) and fungal (AF086) extracts (biostimulants) applied on leaves on growth, N absorption and N fluxes in durum wheat in field and greenhouse experiments. In the field, 15NO3− and 15NH4+ were injected into the soil; in the greenhouse, N of the flag-leaf was labelled with 15NH4+. Flag-leaf senescence was studied by estimating leaf chlorophyll concentration. In greenhouse, biostimulants increased grain yield, total N in plant and the proportion of plant N in ears. When water was limited in greenhouse experiment, neither biostimulants had any effect. In the field, DPI4913 increased soil fertilizer-derived 15N accumulated in grains. In the greenhouse, biostimulants increased the proportion of 15N applied to the flag-leaf recovered in grains and accelerated leaf senescence. For plants treated with biostimulants, flag-leaf N resorption increased. Biostimulants had a larger positive impact on mineral N root uptake than on N remobilization. In conclusion, our study has shown that DPI4913 and AF086 can promote plant growth and grain yield, N uptake and remobilization. Thus, these biostimulants could be used to optimize durum wheat N fertilization and contribute to reduced N losses.

Longan is an economically important sub-tropical fruit tree native to southern China and southeast Asia. Its production has been affected significantly by climate change, but the underlying reasons remain unclear. Herein, the potential growing areas of longan were simulated by the Maxent model under current and future conditions. The results showed excellent prediction performance, with an area under curve of >0.9 for model training and validation. The key environmental variables identified were mean temperature of the coldest quarter, minimum temperature of the coldest month, annual mean temperature and mean temperature of the driest quarter. The optimum suitable areas of longan were found to be concentrated mainly in south-western, southern and eastern China, with a slight increase in optimum suitable areas under two different emission scenarios of three global climatic models. However, its future potential growing areas were predicted to differ among provinces or cities. Suitable growing areas in Sichuan, Jiangxi, Guangxi and Chongqing will first increase and then remain approximately unchanged between the 2050s and 2070s; those in Yunnan, Guangdong and Hainan will remain approximately unchanged from the present to the 2070s; those in Fujian and Guizhou will fluctuate slightly from the present to the 2050s and then increase to the 2070s; those in Taiwan will first decrease and then increase. In summary, the major future production areas of longan will be Guangdong, Hainan and Guangxi provinces, followed by Chongqing, Yunnan, Fujian and Taiwan. Thus, this study serves as a useful guide for the management of longan.

The characteristic traits of maize (Zea mays L.) leaves affect light interception and photosynthesis. Measurement or estimation of individual leaf area has been described using discontinuous equations or bell-shaped functions. However, new maize hybrids show different canopy architecture, such as leaf angle in modern maize which is more upright and ear leaf and adjacent leaves which are longer than older hybrids. The original equations and their parameters, which have been used for older maize hybrids and grown at low plant densities, will not accurately represent modern hybrids. Therefore, the aim of this paper was to develop a new empirical equation that captures vertical leaf distribution. To characterize the vertical leaf profile, we conducted a field experiment in Jilin province, Northeast China from 2015 to 2018. Our new equation for the vertical distribution of leaf profile describes leaf length, width or leaf area as a function of leaf rank, using parameters for the maximum value for leaf length, width or area, the leaf rank at which the maximum value is obtained, and the width of the curve. It thus involves one parameter less than the previously used equations. By analysing the characteristics of this new equation, we identified four key leaf ranks (4, 8, 14 and 20) for which leaf parameter values need to be quantified in order to have a good estimation of leaf length, width and area. Together, the method of leaf area estimation proposed here adds versatility for use in modern maize hybrids and simplifies the field measurements by using the four key leaf ranks to estimate vertical leaf distribution in maize canopy instead of all leaf ranks.

Process-based crop models are a robust approach to assess climate impacts on crop productivity and long-term viability of cropping systems. However, these models require high-quality climate data that cannot always be met. To overcome this issue, the current research tested a simple method for scaling daily data and extrapolating long-term risk profiles of modelled crop yields. An extreme situation was tested, in which high-quality weather data was only available at one single location (reference site: Snowtown, South Australia, 33.78°S, 138.21°E), and limited weather data was available for 49 study sites within the Australian grain belt (spanning from 26.67 to 38.02°S of latitude, and 115.44 to 151.85°E of longitude). Daily weather data were perturbed with a delta factor calculated as the difference between averaged climate data from the reference site and the study sites. Risk profiles were built using a step-wise combination of adjustments from the most simple (adjusted series of precipitation only) to the most detailed (adjusted series of precipitation, temperatures and solar radiation), and a variable record length (from 10 to 100 years). The simplest adjustment and shortest record length produced bias of modelled yield grain risk profiles between −10 and 10% in 41% of the sites, which increased to 86% of the study sites with the most detailed adjustment and longest record (100 years). Results indicate that the quality of the extrapolation of risk profiles was more sensitive to the number of adjustments applied rather than the record length per se.

Organic carbon (C) plays an essential role in the denitrification process as it supplies energy for N2O, N2 and CO2 producing reactions. The objectives of this study were to: (i) rank the reactivity of different C compounds found in manures based on their availability for denitrification and (ii) explore C-quality in different C sources based on their capacity to promote denitrification. Evaluation of different C-sources in promoting denitrification was conducted based on the molar ratio of CO2 production to NO3− reduction after incubation. Results of the first experiment (a 12-day investigation) showed that glucose and glucosamine were highly reactive C compounds with all applied NO3− being exhausted by day 3, and glucosamine had significantly high amount of NH4+-N present at end of the experiment. The glucose and glucosamine treatments resulted in significantly greater cumulative CO2 production, compared to the other treatments. In the second experiment (a 9-day investigation), all NO3− had been depleted by day 6 and 9 from acetic acid and glucose, respectively, and the greatest cumulative CO2 production was from acetic acid. The CO2 appearance to NO3− molar ratios revealed that glucose and glucosamine were compounds with highly available C in the first experiment. In the second experiment, the pig slurry and acetic acid were found to be C-sources that promoted potential denitrification. The application of slurry to soil results in the promotion of denitrification and this depends on the availability of the C compounds it contains. Understanding the relationship between C availability and denitrification potential is useful for developing denitrification mitigation strategies for organic soil amendments.

A set of durum wheat genotypes from New South Wales (NSW, Durum Breeding Australia (DBA) Northern Program), South Australia (SA, DBA Southern Program and Australian Grain Technology), ICARDA and CIMMYT (International Centre for Research in Dryland Agriculture and International Centre for Maize and Wheat Improvement) was evaluated over 3 years (2012–2014) in field trials containing rainfed and watered blocks in Narrabri, NSW, Australia. Data on yield and other agronomic traits were analysed using a multi-environment trial approach that accommodated the factorial treatment structure (genotype by irrigation regime) within individual trials. Considerable variation was observed in the durum germplasm for productivity and grain quality traits. DBA Bindaroi (NSW) and 101042 (ICARDA) were the top yielders in watered and rainfed blocks, respectively. The yield was positively and strongly related to both harvest index and grains/m2, but grains/m2 was negatively related to thousand grain weight (TGW) and positively related to screenings. TGW and screenings were strongly negatively related and TGW and grains/m2 showed a weak positive relationship. Promising genotypes were identified, with superior traits to both the bread wheat check, EGA Gregory and the durum check, Caparoi. Overall, lines from SA and ICARDA were superior for yield but those from NSW were superior for quality parameters including TGW and screenings. These results suggested the possibility of developing high yielding high-quality durum varieties by crossing NSW lines with SA, CIMMYT and ICARDA lines through simultaneous selection for yield, TGW and low screenings. The results also suggested that productivity in rainfed conditions was positively related to productivity under watering, but further research is required to establish this.

The study was conducted to investigate the effects of fish or palm oil diets with different roughage levels on dairy performance, milk physicochemical composition and apparent transfer efficiency of fatty acids (FA) in goat milk. The experiment was conducted with 40 Aleppo goats with a mean parity of 2.53 ± 0.8 (multiparous), mean initial body weight of 47.23 kg and 25 ± 5 days in milk which were allocated to four (2 × 2) experimental diets with two oil sources (fish or palm oil) at 25.6 g/kg of dietary dry matter and forage levels (400 or 600 g/kg). The experimental data were analysed by repeated measures analysis, using the MIXED procedure. The concentrations of saturated FA decreased with high forage level and fish oil diets; however, the fish oil diets caused an increase in C14 saturated FA. Fish oil diets with high roughage levels more efficiently increased conjugated linoleic acid, n-6 (18 : 2), and n-3 (20 : 5). The apparent transfer efficiency of 18 : 1, 18 : 2, 18 : 3 and 20 : 5 decreased and the transfer efficiency of 22 : 6 increased with the use of fish oil in the diet. The roughage level did not affect the apparent transfer efficiency of 18 : 1 and 18 : 2, but the low roughage level increased the apparent transfer efficiency of 20 : 5. High roughage diets improved milk quality parameters through increasing eicosapentaenoic acid, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), PUFA/saturated FA and atherogenicity index, thus it was concluded that dietary roughage level could be considered as an important designator of milk quality when a supplement of fish oil and palm oil was supplied to goats.

Ruminant grazing systems aim to optimize the proportion of grazed forage within the diet and perennial ryegrass grazing efficiency influences both the quantity and quality of herbage utilized. The objective of this study was to examine morphological and chemical plant characteristics and test for any associations with grazing efficiency. The leading perennial ryegrass varieties from the 2016 Irish Recommended List were established in a plot study and rotationally grazed by dairy cows over 3 years. Pre-grazing plant characteristics were measured and related to grazing efficiency, as measured by ‘residual grazed height’. Data were analysed using the PROC MIXED procedure to test for trait differences between varieties, and their corresponding ploidy and heading categorizations. Traits displaying significant variety variability were then tested for their correlation to grazing efficiency using the PROC GLM procedure. Tetraploid varieties exhibited superior grazing efficiency over diploids, due to their superior performance in traits correlated with grazing efficiency. Increasing organic matter digestibility and leaf proportion and decreasing neutral detergent fibre and stem height within the sward were found to increase grazing efficiency. The observed link between these plant traits and grazing efficiency indicates a possibility that they could be used to develop proxy measures to aid breeders to select for, and evaluators to measure, varietal grazing efficiency without involving animal assessments. It was concluded that this would make it logistically practical to assess large numbers of varieties in small plot trials to both breed and evaluate perennial ryegrass varieties for superior grazing efficiency.

Since 1 April 2015, European dairy milk quotas have been removed resulting in the intensification of dairy production within EU countries. The aim of this study was to evaluate the physical and economic impacts of the initial intensification undertaken within Irish grazing dairy systems. Physical and financial data for 868 seasonal calving dairy farmers with records for each of the years 2013–2017 inclusive were used in this analysis. All analyses were undertaken using a mixed-model framework in PROC MIXED. The overall level of fat plus protein productivity of studied farms increased by 51% during the 5-year period through a combination of increased production per cow, increased operational scale and system intensification. Overall farm net profit was highly variable between years and was greatest in 2017 (€133 836) and least in 2016 (€65 176). When farms were characterized into milk production expansion quartiles, farms in Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4 increased output by +7, +25, +44 and +86%, respectively. Whereas total farm profit (€/farm) declined for Q1 farms between 2013/2014 and 2016/2017 (€−5257; −7%), the greater expansion undertaken in Q2, Q3 and Q4 resulted in increases of €3046 (+4%), €20 810 (+25%) and €51 604 (+62%), respectively. In all strategies studied, farm profit increased due to a combination of increased revenues, increased pasture utilization and a dilution of per unit production costs. Further investigation of the longer term impacts of expansion is merited, not just in terms of economic indicators, but also in terms of environmental and socio-cultural change.

Methane (CH4) consumption in agricultural soil is imperative for the mitigation of climate change. However, the effect of tillage and cropping systems on CH4 consumption is less studied. Experiments were carried out in Madhya Pradesh, India with soybean-wheat (SW), maize-wheat (MW) and maize-gram (MG) cropping systems under conventional tillage (CT) and no-tillage (NT). Soybean/maize was cultivated during the kharif season (July–October) and wheat/chickpea in the rabi season (October–March) for 9 years consecutively. Soil samples were collected during vegetative growth stages of soybean and maize from different cropping systems. Methane consumption, the abundance of methanotrophs as particulate methane monooxygenase (pmoA) gene copies, soil and crop parameters were estimated. Methane consumption rate was higher in NT and upper soil layer (0–5 cm) than CT and 5–15 cm depth. Methane consumption rate k ranged from 0.35 to 0.56 μg CH4 consumed/g soil/d in the order of MW>SW>MG in 0–5 cm. The abundance of pmoA gene copies ranged from 43 × 104/g soil to 13 × 104/g soil and was highest in MW-NT and lowest in MG-CT. Available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium were higher in 0–5 cm than in 5–15 cm depth. Soil and plant parameters and abundance of pmoA genes correlated significantly and positively with CH4 consumption rate. No-tillage stimulated CH4 consumption compared to CT irrespective of cropping system and CH4 consumption potential was highest in MW and lowest in MG. However, the magnitude of the positive effect of NT towards CH4 consumption was higher in SW and MG than MW.