Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-8bhkd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-15T05:42:16.277Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Investment and Competition

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 April 2009

Abstract

This paper examines how industry structure affects corporate investment patterns. Real options theory shows that deferring irreversible investment in the face of uncertainty is valuable. Theory also shows that the value of waiting to invest falls if investment opportunities are contestable. Consistent with these theories, we find that firms in monopolistic industries exhibit lower investment-q; sensitivity and are slower to invest than firms in competitive industries. However, we find that investment-q; sensitivity and investment speed are highest in oligopolistic industries, suggesting that the value of investing strategically can outweigh the value of waiting. Indeed, oligopolistic industries experience less entry and more exit than other industries.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © School of Business Administration, University of Washington 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abel, A. B.; Dixit, A. K.; Eberly, J. C.; and Pindyck, R. S.. “Options, the Value of Capital, and Investment.” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 111 (1996), 753777.Google Scholar
Abel, A. B., and Eberly, J. C.. “A Unified Model of Investment under Uncertainty.” American Economic Review, 84 (1994), 13691384.Google Scholar
Abel, A. B., and Eberly, J. C.. “Optimal Investment with Costly Reversibility.” Review of Economic Studies, 63 (1996), 581593.Google Scholar
Abel, A. B., and Eberly, J. C.. “Q Theory without Adjustment Costs and Cash Flow Effects without Financing Constraints.” Working Paper, University of Pennsylvania (2003).Google Scholar
Almeida, H.; Campello, M.; and Weisbach, M. S.. “The Cash Flow Sensitivity of Cash.” Journal of Finance, 59 (2004), 17771804.Google Scholar
Alti, A.How Sensitive is Investment to Cash Flow when Financing is Frictionless?Journal of Finance, 58 (2003), 707722.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andrade, G., and Stafford, E.. “Investigating the Economic Role of Mergers.” Journal of Corporate Finance, 10 (2004), 136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baldursson, F.Irreversible Investment under Uncertainty in Oligopoly.” Journal of Economic Dynamics & Control, 22 (1998), 627644.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baldwin, C. Y.Optimal Sequential Investment when Capital is Not Readily Reversible.” Journal of Finance, 37 (1982), 763782.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnett, S. A., and Sakellaris, P.. “Nonlinear Response of Firm Investment to Q: Testing a Model of Convex and Non-Convex Adjustment Costs.” Journal of Monetary Economics, 42 (1998), 261288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bond, S., and Meghir, C.. “Dynamic Investment Models and the Firm's Financial Policy.” Review of Economic Studies, 61, (1994), 197222.Google Scholar
Brennan, M. J., and Schwartz, E. S.. “Evaluating Natural Resource Investments.” Journal of Business, 58, (1985), 135157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bulan, L.; Mayer, C.; and Somerville, C. T.. “Irreversible Investment, Real Options, and Competition: Evidence from Real Estate Development.” Working Paper, Brandeis University (2002).Google Scholar
Caballero, R. J.On the Sign of the Investment-Uncertainty Relationship.” American Economic Review, 81 (1991), 279288.Google Scholar
Caballero, R. J.Explaining Investment Dynamics in U.S. Manufacturing: A Generalized (S, s) Approach.” Econometrica, 67 (1999), 783826.Google Scholar
Caballero, R. J., and Leahy, J. V.. “Fixed Costs: The Demise of Marginal q.” NBER Working Paper Series w5508 (1999).Google Scholar
Caballero, R. J., and Pindyck, R. S.. “Uncertainty, Investment, and Industry Evolution.” International Economic Review, 37 (1996), 641662.Google Scholar
Christensen, L. R., and Caves, R. E.. “Cheap Talk and Investment Rivalry in the Pulp and Paper Industry.” Journal of Industrial Economics, 45 (1997), 4773.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cleary, S.The Relationship between Firm Investment and Financial Status.” Journal of Finance, 54 (1999), 673692.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, R., and Ejarque, J.. “Exhuming Q: Market Power vs. Capital Market Imperfections.” Working Paper 8182, NBER (2001).Google Scholar
Dixit, A. K.The Role of Investment in Entry-Deterrence.” Economic Journal, 90 (1980), 95106.Google Scholar
Dixit, A. K.Entry and Exit Decisions under Uncertainty.” Journal of Political Economy, 97 (1989), 620638.Google Scholar
Dixit, A. K., and Pindyck, R. S.. Investment under Uncertainty. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (1994).Google Scholar
Doyle, J. M., and Whited, T. M.. “Fixed Costs of Adjustment, Coordination, and Industry Investment.” Review of Economics and Statistics, 83 (2001), 628637.Google Scholar
Eaton, B. C., and Lipsey, R. G.. “The Theory of Market Pre-Emption: The Persistence of Excess Capacity and Monopoly in Growing Spatial Markets.” Economica, 46 (1979), 149158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eaton, B. C., and Lipsey, R. G.. “Exit Barriers Are Entry Barriers: The Durability of Capital as a Barrier to Entry.” Bell Journal of Economics, 11 (1980), 593604.Google Scholar
Eaton, B. C., and Lipsey, R. G.. “Capital, Commitment, and Entry Equilibrium.” Bell Journal of Economics, 12 (1981), 593604.Google Scholar
Erickson, T., and Whited, T. M.. “Measurement Error and the Relationship between Investment and q.” Journal of Political Economy, 108 (2000), 10271057.Google Scholar
Erickson, T., and Whited, T. M.. “Two-Step GMM Estimation of the Errors-in-Variables Model Using High Order Moments.” Econometric Theory, 18 (2002), 776799.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fazzari, S. M.; Hubbard, R. G.; and Petersen, B. C.. “Financing Constraints and Corporate Investment.” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 1 (1988), 141195.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fazzari, S. M., and Petersen, B. C.. “Working Capital and Fixed Investment: New Evidence of Financing Constraints.” RAND Journal of Economics, 24 (1993), 328342.Google Scholar
Fudenberg, D., and Tirole, J.. “Capital as a Commitment: Strategic Investment to Deter Mobility.” Journal of Economic Theory, 31 (1983), 227250.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fudenberg, D., and Tirole, J.. “The Fat-Cat Effect, the Puppy-Dog Ploy, and the Lean and Hungry Look.” American Economic Review, 74 (1984), 361366.Google Scholar
Fudenberg, D., and Tirole, J.. “A Theory of Exit in Duopoly.” Econometrica, 54 (1986), 943960.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galeotti, M., and Schiantarelli, F.. “Generalized Q Models for Investment.” Review of Economics and Statistics, 73 (1991), 383392.Google Scholar
Galeotti, M., and Schiantarelli, F.. “Stock Market Volatility and Investment: Do Only Fundamentals Matter?Economica, New Series, 61 (1994) 147165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghosal, V. “Pre-Emptive Investment Behaviour and Industry Structure.” Economic Issues, 9 (2004), 4768.Google Scholar
Ghosal, V., and Loungani, P.. “Product Market Competition and the Impact of Price Uncertainty on Investment: Some Evidence from US Manufacturing Industries.” Journal of Industrial Economics, 44 (1996), 217228.Google Scholar
Gilbert, R. J., and Lieberman, M. B.. “Investment and Coordination in Oligopolistic Industries.” RAND Journal of Economics, 18 (1987), 1733.Google Scholar
Gilchrist, S., and Himmelberg, C. P.. “Evidence on the Role of Cash Flow for Investment.” Journal of Monetary Economics, 36 (1995), 541572.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gomes, J. F.Financing Investment.” American Economic Review, 91 (2001), 12631285.Google Scholar
Grenadier, S. R.The Strategic Exercise of Options: Development Cascades and Overbuilding in Real Estate Markets.” Journal of Finance, 51 (1996), 16531679.Google Scholar
Grenadier, S. R.Option Exercise Games: An Application to the Equilibrium Investment Strategies of Firms.” Review of Financial Studies, 15 (2002), 691721.Google Scholar
Hamermesh, D. S., and Pfann, G. A.. “Adjustment Costs in Factor Demand.” Journal of Economic Literature, 36 (1996), 12641292.Google Scholar
Hay, D. A., and Liu, G. S.. “The Investment Behaviour of Firms in an Oligopolistic Setting.” Journal of Industrial Organization, 46 (1998), 7999.Google Scholar
Hayashi, F.Tobin's Marginal Q and Average Q: A Neoclassical Interpretation.” Econometrica, 50 (1982), 213224.Google Scholar
Kalbfleisch, J. D., and Prentice, R. L.. The Statistical Analysis of Failure Time Data, 2nd ed.Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Interscience (2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, S. N., and Zingales, L.. “Do Investment-Cash Flow Sensitivities Provide Useful Measures of Financing Constraints?Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112 (1997), 169215.Google Scholar
Kulatilaka, N., and Perotti, E. C.. “Strategic Growth Options.” Management Science, 44 (1998), 10211031.Google Scholar
Lambrecht, B., and Perraudin, W.. “Real Options and Preemption under Incomplete Information.” Journal of Economic Dynamics & Control, 27 (2003), 619643.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leahy, J. V.Investment in Competitive Equilibrium: The Optimality of Myopic Behavior.” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 108 (1993) 11051133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leahy, J. V., and Whited, T. M.. “The Effect of Uncertainty on Investment: Some Stylized Facts.” Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking, 28 (1996), 6483.Google Scholar
Leary, M. T., and Roberts, M. R.. “Do Firms Rebalance Their Capital Structures?Journal of Finance, 60 (2005), 25752619.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lieberman, M. B.Excess Capacity as a Barrier to Entry: An Empirical Appraisal.” Journal of Industrial Economics, 35 (1987a), 607627.Google Scholar
Lieberman, M. B.Postentry Investment and Market Structure in the Chemical Processing Industries.” RAND Journal of Economics, 18 (1987b), 533549.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lieberman, M. B.Exit from Declining Industries: ‘Shakeout’ or ‘Stakeout’?RAND Journal of Economics, 21 (1990), 538554.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacKay, P.Real Flexibility and Financial Structure: An Empirical Analysis.” Review of Financial Studies, 16 (2003), 11311165.Google Scholar
MacKay, P., and Phillips, G. M.. “How Does Industry Affect Firm Financial Structure?Review of Financial Studies, 18 (2005), 14331466.Google Scholar
Majd, S., and Pindyck, R. S.. “Time to Build, Option Value, and Investment Decisions.” Journal of Financial Economics, 18 (1987), 727.Google Scholar
Maksimovic, V., and Phillips, G. M.. “Do Conglomerate Firms Allocate Resources Inefficiently?Journal of Finance, 57 (2002), 721768.Google Scholar
McDonald, R., and Siegel, D.. “The Value of Waiting to Invest.” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 101 (1986), 707728.Google Scholar
Minton, B. A., and Schrand, C.. “The Impact of Cash Flow Volatility on Discretionary Investment and the Costs of Debt and Equity Financing.” Journal of Financial Economics, 54 (1999), 423460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Opler, T.; Pinkowitz, L.; Stulz, R.; and Williamson, R.. “The Determinants and Implications of Corporate Cash Holdings.” Journal of Financial Economics, 52 (1999), 346.Google Scholar
Pacheco-de-Almeida, G., and Zemsky, P.. “The Effect of Time-to-Build on Strategic Investment under Uncertainty.” RAND Journal of Economics, 34 (2003), 166182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pindyck, R. S.Irreversible Investment, Capacity Choice, and the Value of the Firm.” American Economic Review, 78 (1988), 969985.Google Scholar
Pindyck, R. S.A Note on Competitive Investment under Uncertainty.” American Economic Review, 83 (1993), 273277.Google Scholar
Sakellaris, P.A Note on Competitive Investment under Uncertainty: Comment.” American Economic Review, 84 (1994), 11071112.Google Scholar
Sakellaris, P.Investment under Uncertain Market Conditions.” Review of Economics and Statistics, 77 (1995), 455469.Google Scholar
Schwartz, E. S., and Torous, W. N.. “Commercial Office Space: Tests of a Real Options Model with Competitive Interactions.” Working Paper, University of California, Los Angeles (2003).Google Scholar
Spence, M. A.Entry, Capacity, Investment and Oligopolistic Pricing.” Bell Journal of Economics, 8 (1977), 534544.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Triantis, A. J., and Hodder, J. E.. “Valuing Flexibility as a Complex Option.” Journal of Finance, 45 (1990), 549565.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trigeorgis, L.Real Options: Managerial Flexibility and Strategy in Resource Allocation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press (1996).Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Justice and Federal Trade Commission. Horizontal Merger Guidelines (1997).Google Scholar
White, H.A Heteroskedasticity-Consistent Covariance Matrix Estimator and a Direct Test for Heteroskedasticity.” Econometrica, 48 (1980), 817838.Google Scholar
Whited, T. M.Debt, Liquidity Constraints and Corporate Investment: Evidence from Panel Data.” Journal of Finance, 47 (1992), 14251460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whited, T. M.Problems with Identifying Adjustment Costs from Regressions of Investment on Q.” Economics Letters, 46 (1994), 339344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whited, T. M.External Finance Constraints and the Intertemporal Pattern of Intermittent Investment.” Journal of Financial Economics, 81 (2006), 467502.Google Scholar
Williams, J. T.Equilibrium and Options on Real Assets.” Review of Financial Studies, 6 (1993), 825850.CrossRefGoogle Scholar